EN： The sentence uses the Present Perfect tense ('has found') followed by a noun clause introduced by 'that'. The present perfect indicates that a past research finding has relevance to the present, while the noun clause acts as the direct object of 'has found'.
中文： 本句使用现在完成式（has found），后接由 that 引导的名词子句作为受词。现在完成式用来强调过去研究所得出的结论在现今依然具有重要性。
Recent studies have shown that regular exercise reduces stress levels.
近期的研究显示，规律运动能降低压力程度。
EN： The passive construction 'is connected to' functions as a relational phrase meaning 'associated with' or 'linked to', followed by a noun phrase expressing the outcome or related factor.
中文： 短语「be connected to」在此表示「与……有关联」或「与……有联系」，其后接名词短语以表达相关的事物或结果。
Poor sleep quality is connected to difficulty concentrating.
睡眠品质不佳与注意力难以集中有关。
EN： Columbia University, located in Upper Manhattan, New York City, is an Ivy League research institution known for leading high-impact public health and environmental studies.
中文： 哥伦比亚大学位于纽约市上曼哈顿，为美国著名的常春藤盟校之一，在公共卫生与环境研究领域享有国际盛名。
EN： Passive Voice in the Past Simple ('was/were + past participle'): It is used here because the focus is on the research ('The study') rather than the researchers. 'Led' is the irregular past participle of the verb 'lead'. The agent performing the action is introduced with the preposition 'by'.
中文： 过去简单式的被动语态（was/were + 过去分词）：此处用于将焦点放在研究本身（The study）而非研究人员。「led」是动词「lead」（主导、带领）的不规则过去分词。执行动作的对象则由介词「by」引导。
The project was completed by a group of talented engineers.
该项目是由一群优秀的工程师所完成的。
EN： Prepositional Phrase of Location ('at + organization/institution'): The preposition 'at' is used to denote a specific institution, organization, or workplace where a person or team conducts their work.
中文： 表示地点或机构的介词短语（at + 机构／组织）：介词「at」用来指某人或团队任职、开展工作的具体机构、组织或工作场所。
She works as a senior researcher at the National Cancer Institute.
她在国家癌症研究所担任资深研究员。
EN： In academic and scientific reporting in English-speaking media, it is customary to mention the principal investigator by their formal title (e.g., 'Professor') followed by their affiliated research center or university. This establishes the authority and institutional backing of the findings.
中文： 在英语学术与科学新闻报道中，惯例会以正式职衔（如「Professor」）提及项目主持人，并连带注明其所属的研究机构或大学。这能清楚展现研究成果的权威性与专业学术支持。
EN： The noun phrase 'the effects of [something] on [someone/something]' is a common academic and formal pattern used to describe the impact or influence of a cause upon a subject.
中文： 名词短语「the effects of [某事物] on [某人/某事物]」（…对…的影响）是学术与正式英文中非常常见的句型，用来表达某种原因对特定对象所产生的冲击或影响。
Scientists are monitoring the effects of global warming on polar bears.
科学家正在监测全球变暖对北极熊的影响。
EN： The preposition 'for' combined with a duration ('for more than twenty years') expresses the continuous duration of an action. The phrase 'more than' acts as a quantifier modifier meaning 'over' or 'exceeding'.
中文： 介词「for」后接时间长度（如「for more than twenty years」），用来表示动作持续的时间长短；其中「more than」作为数量修饰语，意思是「超过」或「…以上」。
She has worked at the hospital for more than ten years.
她已经在那家医院工作了十年以上。
EN： The past participle 'disadvantaged' is used as an adjective modifying the noun 'communities', describing groups that face social or economic hardships.
中文： 过去分词「disadvantaged」在此作为形容词修饰名词「communities」（社区），用来描述处于社会或经济弱势的群体。
The charity provides free meals to disadvantaged children in the city.
该慈善机构为该市的弱势儿童提供免费餐点。
EN： The preposition 'in' indicates location. Here, two prepositional phrases are nested: 'in disadvantaged communities' shows the type of environment, followed by 'in northern Manhattan and the South Bronx' to specify the precise geographical locations.
中文： 介词「in」用来表示地点。本句中使用了嵌套介词短语：「in disadvantaged communities」指出环境类型，接着由「in northern Manhattan and the South Bronx」明确指出具体的地理位置。
Volunteers worked in temporary clinics in rural villages and remote towns.
志工在农村村庄与偏远城镇的临时诊所里工作。
EN： Northern Manhattan (including neighborhoods like Harlem and Washington Heights) and the South Bronx have historically been lower-income areas with higher rates of air pollution, heavy traffic corridors, and childhood asthma, making them critical focal points for public health and environmental justice research.
中文： 曼哈顿北部（包含哈林区和华盛顿高地等社区）以及南布朗克斯，在历史上属于低收入居民较集中且交通繁忙的区域，空气污染及儿童气喘罹患率相对较高，因此一直是公共卫生与环境正义研究的重点关注地区。
EN： Passive Voice in Past Simple ('were assessed'): Used when the focus is on the people or things receiving the action rather than who performed it. Formed by 'was/were' + past participle.
中文： 过去简单式的被动语态（were assessed）：用于将焦点放在接受动作的人或事物，而非执行动作的主体。结构为「was/were + 过去分词」。
All participants were interviewed before the project began.
所有参与者在项目开始前都接受了访谈。
EN： Adverbial Clause of Time ('when they were...'): Introduced by the conjunction 'when' to specify the time at which the main clause's action took place.
中文： 时间副词子句（when they were...）：由从属连接词「when」引导，用来标明主要子句动作发生的具体时间点。。
He learned to swim when he was five years old.
他五岁时学会了游泳。
EN： In English academic and journalistic writing, expressing multiple ages sequentially as 'one, two, and three years old' is a concise way to avoid repeating 'years old' for each number.
中文： 在英语学术与新闻写作中，连续表达多个年龄时常写作「one, two, and three years old」，以省略前两个数字后方的「year(s old)」，使行文更加简洁流畅。
EN： The relative pronoun 'that' introduces a defining relative clause ('that included memory...') modifying the noun phrase 'cognitive test scores'. It functions as the subject within the relative clause.
中文： 关系代名词「that」引导一个限定关系子句（that included memory...），用来修饰前面的名词片语「cognitive test scores」（认知测验分数）。在此子句中，「that」充当主词角色。
The survey collected data that showed significant changes in student behavior.
该调查收集了显示学生行为有显著变化的数据。
EN： Parallel structure is used when listing multiple items sharing the same grammatical form. Here, three noun phrases are joined by commas and 'and': 'memory', 'problem-solving', and 'language comprehension'.
中文： 列举多个项目时使用平行结构（对称句型），各项目须具备相同的文法结构。在此句中，三个名词片语以逗号与「and」连接：memory、problem-solving 和 language comprehension。
The training program focuses on leadership, communication, and conflict resolution.
该培训计画侧重于领导力、沟通能力和冲突解决能力。
EN： In developmental psychology and pediatric public health studies, 'cognitive tests' for toddlers (such as the Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development) typically evaluate early milestones in memory, basic problem-solving, and receptive/expressive language rather than academic skills.
中文： 在发展心理学与儿科公共卫生研究中，针对幼儿进行的“认知测验”（例如贝利婴幼儿发展量表）主要评估记忆力、基础问题解决以及语言理解与表达等早期里程碑，而非学业或书本技能。
EN： The reporting verb 'found' is followed by a 'that'-noun clause acting as the direct object ('that pollution... had negative effects...'). This pattern is standard in academic and news reporting to summarize empirical findings.
中文： 动词“found（发现）”后面接由“that”引导的名词从句作为宾语（“that pollution... had negative effects...”）。此结构常见于学术研究与新闻报道，用来陈述客观研究结果。
Doctors found that regular exercise reduced the risk of heart disease.
医生发现规律运动降低了罹患心脏病的风险。
EN： The collocation 'have an effect on [something]' means to cause a change or produce an impact on someone or something. Adjectives like 'negative', 'positive', or 'significant' typically modify 'effects'.
中文： 固定搭配“have an effect on [某事物]”表示对某人或某事“产生影响”。通常可用“negative（负面的）”、“positive（正面的）”或“significant（显著的）”等形容词来修饰“effect”。
Lack of sleep has negative effects on your immune system.
缺乏睡眠会对你的免疫系统产生负面影响。
EN： The present perfect tense ('has improved') is used with time expressions like 'over the past two decades' to describe an action or change that started in the past and continues to be relevant up to the present moment.
中文： 现在完成式（has improved）常与「over the past + 时间」这类时间短语搭配使用，用来描述从过去某个时间点开始一直持续到现在的动作或变化。
Public transportation in the city has expanded significantly over the past five years.
该市的大众运输在过去五年间大幅扩展。
EN： The transition adverb 'However' is placed at the beginning of the sentence followed by a comma to signal a contrast with the previous information.
中文： 转折副词「However」置于句首，其后加逗号，用来明确表示语义上的转折，与前面提到的负面或不同情况形成对比。
However, recent efforts have brought noticeable improvements.
然而，近期的努力已经带来了显著的改善。
EN： In the late 20th century, New York City faced severe air pollution from vehicle emissions and heavy heating oil used in residential buildings. Substantial policy changes—such as the Clean Air Act standards, vehicle emissions programs, and phasing out dirty heating fuels—led to dramatic improvements in urban air quality over the 2000s and 2010s.
中文： 20 世纪末期，纽约市曾面临严重的空气污染，主要来自汽车排放与住宅大楼燃烧的重燃料油。自 2000 年代以来，纽约透过推行更严格的洁净空气法案、计程车排放标准以及逐步淘汰高污染供暖油等政策，促使市区空气品质在过去二十年间接有了显著转变。
EN： The present perfect tense ('have reduced') is formed with 'have/has' + past participle. It connects a past action or change to the present situation, emphasizing the lasting result.
中文： 现在完成时（have reduced）由“have/has + 过去分词”构成，用来表示过去发生的动作或变化对现在产生的持续影响或结果。
Recent safety campaigns have reduced traffic accidents in our neighborhood.
最近的安全宣传活动已减少了我们社区的交通事故。
EN： The phrase 'by as much as + [amount/percentage]' is used to emphasize a surprisingly large degree or quantity of difference or reduction. The preposition 'by' indicates the margin or extent of change.
中文： 短语“by as much as + 数量/百分比”用于强调数量或幅度高得出乎意料。介词“by”则用来引出变化或差距的幅度。
Solar panel costs have fallen by as much as seventy percent over the last decade.
在过去十年间，太阳能电池板的成本下降了高达百分之七十。
EN： In New York City, yellow cabs are an iconic symbol of urban transport. Historically, thousands of gas-powered taxis idling in traffic contributed significantly to roadside emissions, leading the city to mandate hybrid or clean-fuel vehicle transitions starting in the late 2000s.
中文： 在纽约市，黄色出租车是极具代表性的城市象征。过去数以千计燃油出租车在堵车时怠速运转，是路面废气的主要来源之一；因此纽约市自2000年代后期开始大力推动出租车换装油电混合或洁净能源车辆。
EN： A non-defining relative clause begins with a comma and 'which', giving extra, non-essential information about the noun ('Heavy fuel oils'). The sentence would still make complete grammatical sense without it.
中文： 非限定关系子句以逗号和「which」开头，用来为先行词（Heavy fuel oils）补充额外非必要的信息。即使省略此子句，主要句子的文法结构依然完整。
Old diesel buses, which produced a lot of smoke, have been taken off the road.
那些会排放大量浓烟的旧型柴油公车已经不再上路了。
EN： The present continuous passive ('are being + past participle') describes an action currently in progress that is happening to the subject. The phrase 'replace A with B' means to substitute B in place of A.
中文： 现在进行时的被动语态结构为「are being + 过去分词」，用来描述某项行动目前正在进行中，且主语为承受该动作的对象。「replace A with B」则表示「以 B 取代 A」。
The outdated computers are being replaced with newer models.
那些过时的电脑目前正被更新的机型所取代。
EN： In New York City, many older residential and commercial buildings traditionally relied on high-polluting 'heavy heating oil' (such as No. 4 and No. 6 oil). City regulations (like NYC Clean Heat) phased out these dirty fuels in favor of natural gas, biodiesel, or ultra-low-sulfur oil to significantly improve urban air quality.
中文： 在纽约市，许多老旧的住商大楼传统上依赖高污染的“重燃油”（如 4 号和 6 号燃油）进行冬季供暖。纽约市法规（如 NYC Clean Heat 清洁供暖计划）强制逐步淘汰这些脏燃料，改用天然气、生质柴油或超低硫燃油，大幅改善了城市空气品质。
EN： The preposition 'by' is commonly used after verbs of increase or decrease (such as drop, fall, increase, rise) to indicate the margin or extent of change (e.g., 'dropped by half').
中文： 介词“by”常接在表示增加或减少的动词（如 drop、fall、increase、rise）之后，用来表示变化的幅度或差额（例如“dropped by half”意为“减少了一半”）。
The company's profits decreased by 20% this quarter.
该公司本季度的利润下降了百分之二十。
EN： The correlative structure 'between A and B' is used to define a specific time span or range linking two points in time.
中文： 相关对称结构“between A and B”用来界定连接两个时间点的具体时间跨度或范围，意为“在 A 与 B 之间”。
The museum was renovated between 2010 and 2012.
该博物馆在 2010 年至 2012 年间进行了翻修。
EN： 'Fine particle pollution' commonly refers to PM2.5 in environmental science and public policy discussions. In major metropolitan areas like New York, monitoring both PM2.5 and nitrogen dioxide (NO2) has been central to urban clean-air initiatives targeting vehicular and heating emissions.
中文： 「细颗粒物污染」在环境科学与公共政策中通常指 PM2.5。在纽约等大都会地区，监测 PM2.5 与二氧化氮（NO2）是针对交通工具及建筑供暖排放所推动的都市清洁空气政策的核心重点。
EN： The structure 'The good news is that...' uses a noun clause introduced by 'that' functioning as a predicative complement (subject complement) after the linking verb 'is'.
中文： 在“The good news is that...”句型中，连字号 'that' 引导名词子句作为连系动词 'is' 的主词补语（表语），用来详细说明好消息的具体内容。
The good news is that everyone passed the final exam.
好消息是大家都通过了期末考试。
EN： The subordinating conjunction 'as' is used here to indicate parallel change, meaning 'while' or 'in proportion to the way that' something happens concurrently.
中文： 从属连接词「as」在此处表示「随着……」，引导时间或伴随状况的副词子句，用来描述两个动作或变化过程同时且成比例地发生。
As people grow older, they tend to become more patient.
随着年龄增长，人们往往变得更有耐心。
EN： Reported Speech with Backshift: When reporting past statements or thoughts using a past reporting verb ('said', 'wanted'), the verbs in the subordinate clauses typically shift back into a past form (e.g., 'will' becomes 'would').
中文： 间接引语中的时态呼应（Backshift）：当使用过去式主要动词（如 said、wanted）转述过去的话语或想法时，从句中的动词通常需要随之退回过去时态，例如 will 变为 would。
She said that she would visit her grandparents next week.
她说她下周会去拜访祖父母。
EN： Indirect Yes/No Questions with 'if': The conjunction 'if' (or 'whether') introduces an embedded noun clause acting as the object of a verb like 'know', 'wonder', or 'ask'. Word order remains declarative (subject + verb), not inverted.
中文： 以 if 引导的间接是非问句：连接词 if（或 whether）用来引导名词从句，充当 know、wonder、ask 等动词的宾语。从句内部必须使用陈述句语序（主语 + 动词），无须倒装。
The doctor wanted to know if the medicine worked effectively.
医生想知道这款药是否有效发挥作用。
EN： In academic journalism, it is common to quote researchers' hypotheses and findings using reporting verbs like 'said', followed by multi-clause structures that outline the cause-and-effect relationships being tested.
中文： 在学术新闻报道中，常用 said、noted 等引述动词介绍研究团队的假设与成果，并透过层层嵌套的子句清晰表达研究探索的「因果关联」（如空气品质与发育指标）。
EN： Adverb placement: In simple active sentences, frequency or manner adverbs like 'clearly' often sit immediately before the main verb to emphasize the action or state described.
中文： 副词位置：在简单的主谓句中，像「clearly」（清楚地）这类情态或修饰副词通常直接放在主要动词之前，用以加强修饰该动作或状态。
The report clearly highlighted several critical errors.
该报告清楚地指出了几项关键错误。
EN： The simple past tense ('showed') is used here to report the completed findings and outcomes of a specific scientific study.
中文： 过去简单式（showed）在此处用于报告特定科学研究已完成的发现与结果。
Previous experiments showed similar outcomes across all age groups.
先前的实验在所有年龄层中都显示了相似的结果。
EN： In scientific reporting, phrases like 'positive connection' or 'positive correlation' mean that two variables increase together (here, better air quality corresponds to higher cognitive scores), rather than simply meaning 'good' news.
中文： 在科学与学术报道中，「positive connection」（正向关联）或「positive correlation」（正相关）指的是统计上两个变量同向增长（此处指空气品质改善与认知测验分数提升同时出现），并非单纯口语中表示「好的」消息。
EN： The reporting verb 'suggests' is followed by a 'that'-noun clause acting as the direct object. Inside this clause, the gerund phrase 'reducing pollution' functions as the subject.
中文： 动词“suggests”（表明、显示）后面接一个由“that”引导的名词从句作为宾语。在该从句内部，动名词短语“reducing pollution”（减少污染）充当主语。
The report indicates that eating vegetables improves overall physical health.
该报告指出，多吃蔬菜能改善整体身体健康。
EN： The adverb 'even' is used here to add emphasis before a time adverbial clause ('before they are born'), highlighting an extreme or surprising condition.
中文： 副词「even」（甚至）用在时间副词子句（「before they are born」）之前以加强语气，突显出意想不到或极端的情境。
She continued to work hard, even when she was exhausted.
即使在筋疲力尽时，她仍然继续努力工作。
EN： In academic and science journalism, cautious reporting verbs like 'suggests' or 'indicates' are favored over absolute claims like 'proves', reflecting the scientific convention that individual studies offer evidence rather than definitive proof.
中文： 在学术研究与科学新闻报道中，常使用「suggests」（表明、暗示）或「indicates」（指出）等较为严谨客观的转述动词，而非绝对性的「proves」（证明），这体现了科学界强调单项研究提供有力证据而非绝对结论的求真传统。
重要单词附有 IPA 发音、定义、例句和互动式测验。
在本文中： 学步期幼儿（通常指一至三岁的儿童）
在本文中： 弱势的、处于不利地位的
在本文中： 评估、评定
在本文中： 认知的、感知的
在本文中： 理解、理解力
在本文中： 怀孕期、妊娠
在本文中： 十年
在本文中： 污染物
在本文中： 减少、下降
在本文中： 对……有益、使受益
片语包含类型标示、双语定义、用法说明和例句。
The degree to which the air is clean, clear, and free from pollutants.
空气质量
Related to or associated with something.
与……有关联
The growth and maturation of intellectual, emotional, and cognitive capabilities.
心智发展
Pollution consisting of tiny solid or liquid particles suspended in the air (such as PM2.5).
细悬浮微粒污染（PM2.5）
To cause something to happen or result in a particular outcome.
导致、引起