EN： The sentence uses the Present Perfect tense ('has found') followed by a noun clause introduced by 'that'. The present perfect indicates that a past research finding has relevance to the present, while the noun clause acts as the direct object of 'has found'.
中文： 本句使用現在完成式（has found），後接由 that 引導的名詞子句作為受詞。現在完成式用來強調過去研究所得出的結論在現今依然具有重要性與相關性。
Recent studies have shown that regular exercise reduces stress levels.
近期的研究顯示，規律運動能降低壓力程度。
EN： The passive construction 'is connected to' functions as a relational phrase meaning 'associated with' or 'linked to', followed by a noun phrase expressing the outcome or related factor.
中文： 片語「be connected to」在此表示「與……有關聯」或「與……有聯繫」，其後接名詞片語以表達相關的事物或結果。
Poor sleep quality is connected to difficulty concentrating.
睡眠品質不佳與注意力難以集中有關。
EN： Columbia University, located in Upper Manhattan, New York City, is an Ivy League research institution known for leading high-impact public health and environmental studies.
中文： 哥倫比亞大學位於紐約市上曼哈頓，為美國著名的常春藤盟校之一，在公共衛生與環境研究領域享有國際盛名。
EN： Passive Voice in the Past Simple ('was/were + past participle'): It is used here because the focus is on the research ('The study') rather than the researchers. 'Led' is the irregular past participle of the verb 'lead'. The agent performing the action is introduced with the preposition 'by'.
中文： 過去簡單式的被動語態（was/were + 過去分詞）：此處用於將焦點放在研究本身（The study）而非研究人員。「led」是動詞「lead」（主導、帶領）的不規則過去分詞。執行動作的對象則由介系詞「by」引導。
The project was completed by a group of talented engineers.
該專案是由一群優秀的工程師所完成的。
EN： Prepositional Phrase of Location ('at + organization/institution'): The preposition 'at' is used to denote a specific institution, organization, or workplace where a person or team conducts their work.
中文： 表示地點或機構的介系詞片語（at + 機構／組織）：介系詞「at」用來指某人或團隊任職、開展工作的具體機構、組織或工作場所。
She works as a senior researcher at the National Cancer Institute.
她在國家癌症研究所擔任資深研究員。
EN： In academic and scientific reporting in English-speaking media, it is customary to mention the principal investigator by their formal title (e.g., 'Professor') followed by their affiliated research center or university. This establishes the authority and institutional backing of the findings.
中文： 在英語學術與科學新聞報導中，慣例會以正式職銜（如「Professor」）提及計畫主持人，並連帶註明其所屬的研究機構或大學。這能清楚展現研究成果的權威性與專業學術支持。
EN： The noun phrase 'the effects of [something] on [someone/something]' is a common academic and formal pattern used to describe the impact or influence of a cause upon a subject.
中文： 名詞片語「the effects of [某事物] on [某人/某事物]」（…對…的影響）是學術與正式英文中非常常見的句型，用來表達某種原因對特定對象所產生的衝擊或影響。
Scientists are monitoring the effects of global warming on polar bears.
科學家正在監測全球暖化對北極熊的影響。
EN： The preposition 'for' combined with a duration ('for more than twenty years') expresses the continuous duration of an action. The phrase 'more than' acts as a quantifier modifier meaning 'over' or 'exceeding'.
中文： 介系詞「for」後接時間長度（如「for more than twenty years」），用來表示動作持續的時間長短；其中「more than」作為數量修飾語，意思是「超過」或「…以上」。
She has worked at the hospital for more than ten years.
她已經在那家醫院工作了十年以上。
EN： The past participle 'disadvantaged' is used as an adjective modifying the noun 'communities', describing groups that face social or economic hardships.
中文： 過去分詞「disadvantaged」在此作為形容詞修飾名詞「communities」（社區），用來描述處於社會或經濟弱勢的群體。
The charity provides free meals to disadvantaged children in the city.
該慈善機構為該市的弱勢兒童提供免費餐點。
EN： The preposition 'in' indicates location. Here, two prepositional phrases are nested: 'in disadvantaged communities' shows the type of environment, followed by 'in northern Manhattan and the South Bronx' to specify the precise geographical locations.
中文： 介系詞「in」用來表示地點。本句中使用了巢狀介系詞片語：「in disadvantaged communities」指出環境類型，接著由「in northern Manhattan and the South Bronx」明確指出具體的地理位置。
Volunteers worked in temporary clinics in rural villages and remote towns.
志工在農村村莊與偏遠城鎮的臨時診所裡工作。
EN： Northern Manhattan (including neighborhoods like Harlem and Washington Heights) and the South Bronx have historically been lower-income areas with higher rates of air pollution, heavy traffic corridors, and childhood asthma, making them critical focal points for public health and environmental justice research.
中文： 曼哈頓北部（包含哈林區和華盛頓高地等社區）以及南布朗克斯，在歷史上屬於低收入居民較集中且交通繁忙的區域，空氣污染及兒童氣喘罹患率相對較高，因此一直是公共衛生與環境正義研究的重點關注地區。
EN： Passive Voice in Past Simple ('were assessed'): Used when the focus is on the people or things receiving the action rather than who performed it. Formed by 'was/were' + past participle.
中文： 過去簡單式的被動語態（were assessed）：用於將焦點放在接受動作的人或事物，而非執行動作的主體。結構為「was/were + 過去分詞」。
All participants were interviewed before the project began.
所有參與者在專案開始前都接受了訪談。
EN： Adverbial Clause of Time ('when they were...'): Introduced by the conjunction 'when' to specify the time at which the main clause's action took place.
中文： 時間副詞子句（when they were...）：由從屬連接詞「when」引導，用來標明主要子句動作發生的具體時間點。
He learned to swim when he was five years old.
他五歲時學會了游泳。
EN： In English academic and journalistic writing, expressing multiple ages sequentially as 'one, two, and three years old' is a concise way to avoid repeating 'years old' for each number.
中文： 在英語學術與新聞寫作中，連續表達多個年齡時常寫作「one, two, and three years old」，以省略前兩個數字後方的「year(s) old」，使行文更加簡潔流暢。
EN： The relative pronoun 'that' introduces a defining relative clause ('that included memory...') modifying the noun phrase 'cognitive test scores'. It functions as the subject within the relative clause.
中文： 關係代名詞「that」引導一個限定關係子句（that included memory...），用來修飾前面的名詞片語「cognitive test scores」（認知測驗分數）。在此子句中，「that」充當主詞角色。
The survey collected data that showed significant changes in student behavior.
該調查收集了顯示學生行為有顯著變化的數據。
EN： Parallel structure is used when listing multiple items sharing the same grammatical form. Here, three noun phrases are joined by commas and 'and': 'memory', 'problem-solving', and 'language comprehension'.
中文： 列舉多個項目時使用平行結構（對稱句型），各項目須具備相同的文法結構。在此句中，三個名詞片語以逗號與「and」連接：memory、problem-solving 和 language comprehension。
The training program focuses on leadership, communication, and conflict resolution.
該培訓計畫側重於領導力、溝通能力和衝突解決能力。
EN： In developmental psychology and pediatric public health studies, 'cognitive tests' for toddlers (such as the Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development) typically evaluate early milestones in memory, basic problem-solving, and receptive/expressive language rather than academic skills.
中文： 在發展心理學與兒科公共衛生研究中，針對幼兒進行的「認知測驗」（例如貝利嬰幼兒發展量表）主要評估記憶力、基礎問題解決以及語言理解與表達等早期里程碑，而非學業或書本技能。
EN： The reporting verb 'found' is followed by a 'that'-noun clause acting as the direct object ('that pollution... had negative effects...'). This pattern is standard in academic and news reporting to summarize empirical findings.
中文： 動詞「found（發現）」後面接由「that」引導的名詞子句作為受詞（「that pollution... had negative effects...」）。此結構常見於學術研究與新聞報導，用來陳述客觀研究結果。
Doctors found that regular exercise reduced the risk of heart disease.
醫生發現規律運動降低了罹患心臟病的風險。
EN： The collocation 'have an effect on [something]' means to cause a change or produce an impact on someone or something. Adjectives like 'negative', 'positive', or 'significant' typically modify 'effects'.
中文： 固定搭配「have an effect on [某事物]」表示對某人或某事「產生影響」。通常可用「negative（負面的）」、「positive（正面的）」或「significant（顯著的）」等形容詞來修飾「effect」。
Lack of sleep has negative effects on your immune system.
缺乏睡眠會對你的免疫系統產生負面影響。
EN： The present perfect tense ('has improved') is used with time expressions like 'over the past two decades' to describe an action or change that started in the past and continues to be relevant up to the present moment.
中文： 現在完成式（has improved）常與「over the past + 時間」這類時間片語搭配使用，用來描述從過去某個時間點開始一直持續到現在的動作或變化。
Public transportation in the city has expanded significantly over the past five years.
該市的大眾運輸在過去五年間大幅擴展。
EN： The transition adverb 'However' is placed at the beginning of the sentence followed by a comma to signal a contrast with the previous information.
中文： 轉折副詞「However」置於句首，其後加逗號，用來明確表示語意上的轉折，與前文提到的負面或不同情況形成對比。
However, recent efforts have brought noticeable improvements.
然而，近期的努力已經帶來了顯著的改善。
EN： In the late 20th century, New York City faced severe air pollution from vehicle emissions and heavy heating oil used in residential buildings. Substantial policy changes—such as the Clean Air Act standards, vehicle emissions programs, and phasing out dirty heating fuels—led to dramatic improvements in urban air quality over the 2000s and 2010s.
中文： 20 世紀末期，紐約市曾面臨嚴重的空氣污染，主要來自汽車排放與住宅大樓燃燒的重燃料油。自 2000 年代以來，紐約透過推行更嚴格的潔淨空氣法案、計程車排放標準以及逐步淘汰高污染供暖油等政策，促使市區空氣品質在過去二十年間有了顯著轉變。
EN： The present perfect tense ('have reduced') is formed with 'have/has' + past participle. It connects a past action or change to the present situation, emphasizing the lasting result.
中文： 現在完成式（have reduced）由「have/has + 過去分詞」構成，用來表示過去發生的動作或變化對現在產生的持續影響或結果。
Recent safety campaigns have reduced traffic accidents in our neighborhood.
最近的安全宣傳活動已減少了我們社區的交通事故。
EN： The phrase 'by as much as + [amount/percentage]' is used to emphasize a surprisingly large degree or quantity of difference or reduction. The preposition 'by' indicates the margin or extent of change.
中文： 片語「by as much as + 數量/百分比」用於強調數量或幅度高得出乎意料。介系詞「by」則用來引出變化或差距的幅度。
Solar panel costs have fallen by as much as seventy percent over the last decade.
在過去十年間，太陽能電池板的成本下降了高達百分之七十。
EN： In New York City, yellow cabs are an iconic symbol of urban transport. Historically, thousands of gas-powered taxis idling in traffic contributed significantly to roadside emissions, leading the city to mandate hybrid or clean-fuel vehicle transitions starting in the late 2000s.
中文： 在紐約市，黃色計程車是極具代表性的城市象徵。過去數以千計燃油計程車在堵車時怠速運轉，是路面廢氣的主要來源之一；因此紐約市自2000年代後期開始大力推動計程車換裝油電混合或潔淨能源車輛。
EN： A non-defining relative clause begins with a comma and 'which', giving extra, non-essential information about the noun ('Heavy fuel oils'). The sentence would still make complete grammatical sense without it.
中文： 非限定關係子句以逗號和「which」開頭，用來為先行詞（Heavy fuel oils）補充額外非必要的資訊。即使省略此子句，主要句子的文法結構依然完整。
Old diesel buses, which produced a lot of smoke, have been taken off the road.
那些會排放大量濃煙的舊型柴油公車已經不再上路了。
EN： The present continuous passive ('are being + past participle') describes an action currently in progress that is happening to the subject. The phrase 'replace A with B' means to substitute B in place of A.
中文： 現在進行式的被動語態結構為「are being + 過去分詞」，用來描述某項行動目前正在進行中，且主詞為承受該動作的對象。「replace A with B」則表示「以 B 取代 A」。
The outdated computers are being replaced with newer models.
那些過時的電腦目前正被更新的機型所取代。
EN： In New York City, many older residential and commercial buildings traditionally relied on high-polluting 'heavy heating oil' (such as No. 4 and No. 6 oil). City regulations (like NYC Clean Heat) phased out these dirty fuels in favor of natural gas, biodiesel, or ultra-low-sulfur oil to significantly improve urban air quality.
中文： 在紐約市，許多老舊的住商大樓傳統上依賴高污染的「重燃油」（如 4 號和 6 號燃油）進行冬季供暖。紐約市法規（如 NYC Clean Heat 清潔供暖計畫）強制逐步淘汰這些髒燃料，改用天然氣、生質柴油或超低硫燃油，大幅改善了城市空氣品質。
EN： The preposition 'by' is commonly used after verbs of increase or decrease (such as drop, fall, increase, rise) to indicate the margin or extent of change (e.g., 'dropped by half').
中文： 介系詞「by」常接在表示增加或減少的動詞（如 drop、fall、increase、rise）之後，用來表示變化的幅度或差額（例如「dropped by half」意為「減少了一半」）。
The company's profits decreased by 20% this quarter.
該公司本季度的利潤下降了百分之二十。
EN： The correlative structure 'between A and B' is used to define a specific time span or range linking two points in time.
中文： 相關對稱結構「between A and B」用來界定連接兩個時間點的具體時間跨度或範圍，意為「在 A 與 B 之間」。
The museum was renovated between 2010 and 2012.
該博物館在 2010 年至 2012 年間進行了翻修。
EN： 'Fine particle pollution' commonly refers to PM2.5 in environmental science and public policy discussions. In major metropolitan areas like New York, monitoring both PM2.5 and nitrogen dioxide (NO2) has been central to urban clean-air initiatives targeting vehicular and heating emissions.
中文： 「Fine particle pollution（細懸浮微粒污染）」在環境科學與公共政策中通常指 PM2.5。在紐約等大都會地區，監測 PM2.5 與二氧化氮（NO2）是針對交通工具及建築供暖排放所推動的都市清潔空氣政策的核心重點。
EN： The structure 'The good news is that...' uses a noun clause introduced by 'that' functioning as a predicative complement (subject complement) after the linking verb 'is'.
中文： 「The good news is that...」句型中，連字號 'that' 引導名詞子句作為連繫動詞 'is' 的主詞補語（表語），用來詳細說明好消息的具體內容。
The good news is that everyone passed the final exam.
好消息是大家都通過了期末考。
EN： The subordinating conjunction 'as' is used here to indicate parallel change, meaning 'while' or 'in proportion to the way that' something happens concurrently.
中文： 從屬連接詞「as」在此處表示「隨著……」，引導時間或伴隨狀況的副詞子句，用來描述兩個動作或變化過程同時且成比例地發生。
As people grow older, they tend to become more patient.
隨著年齡增長，人們往往變得更有耐心。
EN： Reported Speech with Backshift: When reporting past statements or thoughts using a past reporting verb ('said', 'wanted'), the verbs in the subordinate clauses typically shift back into a past form (e.g., 'will' becomes 'would').
中文： 間接引語中的時態呼應（Backshift）：當使用過去式主要動詞（如 said、wanted）轉述過去的話語或想法時，從屬子句中的動詞通常需要隨之退回過去時態，例如 will 變為 would。
She said that she would visit her grandparents next week.
她說她下週會去拜訪祖父母。
EN： Indirect Yes/No Questions with 'if': The conjunction 'if' (or 'whether') introduces an embedded noun clause acting as the object of a verb like 'know', 'wonder', or 'ask'. Word order remains declarative (subject + verb), not inverted.
中文： 以 if 引導的間接是非問句：連接詞 if（或 whether）用來引導名詞子句，充當 know、wonder、ask 等動詞的受詞。子句內部必須使用陳述句語序（主詞 + 動詞），無須倒裝。
The doctor wanted to know if the medicine worked effectively.
醫生想知道這款藥是否有效發揮作用。
EN： In academic journalism, it is common to quote researchers' hypotheses and findings using reporting verbs like 'said', followed by multi-clause structures that outline the cause-and-effect relationships being tested.
中文： 在學術新聞報導中，常用 said、noted 等引述動詞介紹研究團隊的假設與成果，並透過層層嵌套的子句清晰表達研究探索的「因果關聯」（如空氣品質與發育指標）。
EN： Adverb placement: In simple active sentences, frequency or manner adverbs like 'clearly' often sit immediately before the main verb to emphasize the action or state described.
中文： 副詞位置：在簡單的主動句中，像「clearly」（清楚地）這類情態或修飾副詞通常直接放在主要動詞之前，用以加強修飾該動作或狀態。
The report clearly highlighted several critical errors.
該報告清楚地指出了幾項關鍵錯誤。
EN： The simple past tense ('showed') is used here to report the completed findings and outcomes of a specific scientific study.
中文： 過去簡單式（showed）在此處用於報告特定科學研究已完成的發現與結果。
Previous experiments showed similar outcomes across all age groups.
先前的實驗在所有年齡層中都顯示了相似的結果。
EN： In scientific reporting, phrases like 'positive connection' or 'positive correlation' mean that two variables increase together (here, better air quality corresponds to higher cognitive scores), rather than simply meaning 'good' news.
中文： 在科學與學術報導中，「positive connection」（正向關聯）或「positive correlation」（正相關）指的是統計上兩個變數同向增長（此處指空氣品質改善與認知測驗分數提升同時出現），並非單純口語中表示「好的」消息。
EN： The reporting verb 'suggests' is followed by a 'that'-noun clause acting as the direct object. Inside this clause, the gerund phrase 'reducing pollution' functions as the subject.
中文： 動詞「suggests」（表明、顯示）後面接一個由「that」引導的名詞子句作為受詞。在該子句內部，動名詞片語「reducing pollution」（減少污染）充當主詞。
The report indicates that eating vegetables improves overall physical health.
該報告指出，多吃蔬菜能改善整體身體健康。
EN： The adverb 'even' is used here to add emphasis before a time adverbial clause ('before they are born'), highlighting an extreme or surprising condition.
中文： 副詞「even」（甚至）用在時間副詞子句（「before they are born」）之前以加強語氣，突顯出一種意想不到或極端的情境。
She continued to work hard, even when she was exhausted.
即使在筋疲力盡時，她仍然繼續努力工作。
EN： In academic and science journalism, cautious reporting verbs like 'suggests' or 'indicates' are favored over absolute claims like 'proves', reflecting the scientific convention that individual studies offer evidence rather than definitive proof.
中文： 在學術研究與科學新聞報導中，常使用「suggests」（表明、暗示）或「indicates」（指出）等較為嚴謹客觀的轉述動詞，而非絕對性的「proves」（證明），這體現了科學界強調單項研究提供有力證據而非絕對結論的求真傳統。
重要單字附有 IPA 發音、定義、例句和互動式測驗。
在本文中： 學步期幼兒（通常指一至三歲的兒童）
在本文中： 弱勢的、處於不利地位的
在本文中： 評估、評定
在本文中： 認知的、感知的
在本文中： 理解、理解力
在本文中： 懷孕期、妊娠
在本文中： 十年
在本文中： 污染物
在本文中： 減少、下降
在本文中： 對……有益、使受益
片語包含類型標示、雙語定義、用法說明和例句。
The degree to which the air is clean, clear, and free from pollutants.
空氣品質
Related to or associated with something.
與……有關聯
The growth and maturation of intellectual, emotional, and cognitive capabilities.
心智發展
Pollution consisting of tiny solid or liquid particles suspended in the air (such as PM2.5).
細懸浮微粒污染（PM2.5）
To cause something to happen or result in a particular outcome.
導致、引起