EN： The preposition 'without' followed by a gerund ('-ing' form) functions as an adverbial adjunct of manner or attendant circumstance, expressing an action or condition that did not take place during or alongside the main event.
中文： 介系詞「without」後接動名詞（V-ing），在此作為修飾主句謂語的伴隨狀語或方式狀語，用來表達在主要動作發生時「未能／並未做到」的伴隨情況或結果。
The delegates left the summit without reaching a consensus on emissions targets.
代表們離開了峰會，未能就減排目標達成共識。
EN： Prepositional stacking: English formal reporting frequently stacks prepositional phrases to specify location ('in Addis Ababa'), time ('on Friday'), and circumstances ('without agreeing on a firm timetable...'). The order typically flows from place to time to manner/condition, maintaining syntactic clarity.
中文： 介系詞短語的連續堆疊（Prepositional Stacking）：在正式英語新聞報導中，常藉由串聯多個介系詞短語來精確補充地點（in Addis Ababa）、時間（on Friday）及條件狀況（without agreeing...）。通常按照「地點 → 時間 → 伴隨情況」的自然層次排列，使句意清晰緊湊。
The committee convened a session in Geneva on Monday without issuing a formal statement.
委員會週一在日內瓦召開會議，但並未發表正式聲明。
EN： The IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change), established by UNEP and WMO, operates through plenary sessions where scientific conclusions and publication timetables require rigorous political consensus among member states. Holding meetings in Global South diplomatic hubs like Addis Ababa (capital of Ethiopia and seat of the African Union) underscores ongoing global debates about representation and equitable influence in international climate governance.
中文： 聯合國政府間氣候變化專門委員會（IPCC）由聯合國環境署與世界氣象組織共同創立，其工作時程與報告摘要需經所有會員國代表協商並達成高度共識。此次會議設於衣索比亞首都、同時也是非洲聯盟總部所在地的阿迪斯阿貝巴，凸顯了全球南方國家在國際氣候治理與科學話語權上日益重要的政治角力。
EN： The preposition 'with' can introduce an absolute construction (with + object + complement/adverbial) to express attendant circumstances, reasons, or background timing.
中文： 介系詞「with」可引導獨立結構（with + 受詞 + 補語／副詞片語），用來表示伴隨狀況、原因或時間背景，在此表示距離會議召開僅剩不到一個月的倒數情境。
With the deadline fast approaching, the team worked late into the night.
隨著截止日期迅速逼近，團隊工作到深夜。
EN： The causative/resultative verb pattern 'leave + object + object complement (adjective)' means to cause someone or something to remain in a specified state or condition.
中文： 動詞「leave + 受詞 + 受詞補語（形容詞）」結構，表示「使……處於某種狀態」或「導致某事物懸而未決」。本句中「leaves the future... uncertain」即為此用法。
The sudden cancellation of funding leaves several research projects vulnerable.
資金的突然取消使得數項研究計畫陷入岌岌可危的境地。
EN： In multilateral climate diplomacy under the UNFCCC, 'COP' stands for the 'Conference of the Parties'. Because these high-stakes negotiations rely heavily on consensus-driven reports from bodies like the IPCC, any procedural stalemate shortly before a COP summit creates severe diplomatic anxiety regarding the credibility and timeline of climate commitments.
中文： 在聯合國氣候變化綱要公約（UNFCCC）架構下，「COP」代表「締約方會議（Conference of the Parties）」。這類高層級談判極度依賴聯合國政府間氣候變化專門委員會等科學機構提供的共識報告；因此，在 COP 峰會前夕出現談判僵局，往往會重挫各國制定減排目標的時間表與公信力。
EN： The past participle phrase 'joined by China and Kenya' functions as a non-restrictive participial modifier, providing supplementary descriptive information about the compound subject ('Saudi Arabia, Russia and India') without interrupting the main grammatical agreement.
中文： 過去分詞片語「joined by China and Kenya」在此作為非限定分詞修飾語，為複合主詞（Saudi Arabia, Russia and India）提供補充說明，不影響主要句構的動詞一致性。
The lead researcher, backed by an international team of analysts, presented the revolutionary data.
首席研究員在國際分析師團隊的支援下，發表了這項革命性的數據。
EN： 'Contend that...' is an advanced reporting verb indicating a strong, assertive claim or stance in formal discourse, typically introducing a noun clause (content clause) functioning as the direct object.
中文： 「contend that...」為正式語域中常見的轉述動詞，表示提出堅決主張或論點，後方引導名詞子句（that 子句）作為及物動詞的受詞。
Critics contended that the new policy failed to address fundamental economic disparities.
批評者堅稱，這項新政策未能解決根本的經濟差距問題。
EN： 'Thereby + present participle (-ing)' functions as an adverbial participial clause expressing consequence or result, equivalent to 'and by that means / as a result of which'.
中文： 「thereby + 現在分詞（-ing）」結構引導表示結果的分詞片語，相當於「and thereby...」或「從而／因此導致」，常見於正式學術與新聞論述。
The company automated key production lines, thereby reducing operational costs substantially.
該公司將主要生產線自動化，從而大幅降低了營運成本。
EN： In international climate negotiations under the UN and the IPCC, developing and fossil-fuel-reliant emerging economies (such as Saudi Arabia, Russia, India, and China) frequently argue that Western or developed nations exert disproportionate influence over scientific literature and peer-reviewed journals, leading to a Global North bias in global policy evaluations.
中文： 在聯合國與聯合國政府間氣候變化專門委員會（IPCC）的國際氣候談判中，以沙烏地阿拉伯、俄羅斯、印度與中國等為代表的開發中或依賴石化能源之經濟體，常質疑西方已開發國家在科學文獻與同儕審查機制中握有不成比例的話語權，進而指責氣候政策評估存在「全球北方（Global North）」的偏見。
EN： Mandative Subjunctive: Verbs of demand, recommendation, or insistence (e.g., insist, demand, recommend) followed by a 'that'-clause take the subjunctive mood, which uses the base form of the verb regardless of tense or subject number. In passive constructions, it takes the form 'be + past participle' (e.g., 'publication be postponed' instead of 'is postponed' or 'was postponed').
中文： 祈使虛擬語氣（Mandative Subjunctive）：表示要求、命令、堅持或建議的動詞（如 insist、demand、recommend）接 that 子句時，從屬子句的動詞需使用原形動詞（be 或原形），不受主詞單複數或主句時態影響。在被動語態中呈現為「be + 過去分詞」，例如此處的「publication be postponed」（而非 is 或 was postponed）。
The committee insisted that the audit be conducted by an independent firm.
委員會堅持該審計工作必須由一家獨立機構進行。
EN： Preposition 'despite' + Perfect Gerund with Accusative/Genitive Subject: The preposition 'despite' introduces concession and takes a noun phrase or gerund. Here, it is followed by a perfect gerund ('having appeared') to indicate that the action occurred before the main clause's action. 'The last assessment' functions as the subject of the gerund phrase.
中文： 介系詞 despite 引導的動名詞完成式（含邏輯主詞）：despite 表示讓步轉折，後方須接名詞或動名詞。此處使用完成式動名詞「having appeared」，用以強調該評估報告的「發布」發生在主句動作之前；而「the last assessment」則作為此動名詞片語的邏輯主詞。
Despite the project having faced severe delays, the team managed to deliver exceptional results.
儘管該專案曾面臨嚴重的延誤，團隊仍成功交付了出色的成果。
EN： In international climate governance, the timing of IPCC assessment reports is deeply political. Delaying the report beyond 2028 means scientific input would miss the Paris Agreement's second global stocktake and the submission of new Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) at Cop33, significantly weakening international scrutiny on major fossil fuel producers and developing powerhouses.
中文： 在國際氣候治理中，聯合國政府間氣候變化專門委員會（IPCC）綜合評估報告的發布時程牽涉高度的地緣政治博弈。若延後至 2028 年之後發布，該科學評估將錯過《巴黎協定》的第二次全球盤點，以及各國在第33屆聯合國氣候變化大會（Cop33）提交新一輪國家自主貢獻（NDCs）的時程，從而大幅減弱國際社會對產油國與排碳大國的科學審查力度。
EN： Inverted Conditional with 'Were': When expressing hypothetical or future conditional situations formally, the conjunction 'if' can be omitted and replaced by inverting the auxiliary verb 'were' with the subject ('were the timetable to slip' = 'if the timetable were to slip'). This structure belongs to the subjunctive mood and is typical of formal journalism and academic writing.
中文： 倒裝虛擬條件句（Were 倒裝）：在正式書面語中，表達對未來的假設或虛擬語氣時，可省略連接詞 'if'，並將助動詞 'were' 移至主詞前構成倒裝（'were the timetable to slip' 等同於 'if the timetable were to slip'）。此結構常見於高階新聞報導與學術文獻，能顯著提升語域的正式度與嚴謹度。
Were negotiations to collapse, both nations would face severe economic consequences.
談判若破裂，兩國都將面臨嚴重的經濟後果。
EN： The Transitive Usage of 'Inform': While 'inform' commonly means 'to notify someone' (inform someone of something), in formal and academic English it frequently means 'to provide knowledge or evidence that shapes, guides, or serves as the basis for a decision, policy, or theory' (inform new emissions pledges).
中文： 動詞「inform」的進階及物用法：一般日常用語中 'inform' 多表示「通知某人」（inform sb of sth），但在正式與學術語境中，它常作為「為……提供依據、指導或塑造（決策、政策、理論）」之意（如 'inform new emissions pledges' 即為新減排承諾提供科學依據與指導）。
Extensive empirical research should inform future public health policies.
廣泛的實證研究應當為未來的公共衛生政策提供指導依據。
EN： Reduced Adjective Phrase with 'Due': The phrase 'due at the Cop33 summit in late 2028' is a postpositive adjectival phrase modifying 'new emissions pledges'. 'Due' in this context functions as an adjective meaning 'expected, scheduled, or required to be submitted/completed'. It effectively acts as an elliptical relative clause ('which are due...').
中文： 形容詞片語後位修飾（'due at...'）：片語 'due at the Cop33 summit in late 2028' 作為後位修飾語，修飾前面的名詞短語 'new emissions pledges'。此處 'due' 為形容詞，意為「預期到期／預定提交的」，相當於省略了關係代名詞及動詞的子句（'which are due...'）。
Final budget proposals due by the end of next month must be submitted electronically.
下個月底前應提交的最終預算提案必須以電子方式送交。
EN： Under the UN climate process (the Paris agreement mechanism), countries are required to submit increasingly ambitious Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs, or emissions pledges) every five years. The 2028 round coincides with the second Global Stocktake. If the IPCC report—the gold standard of climate science—is delayed past 2028, governments would negotiate and set these crucial national targets without updated, comprehensive scientific benchmarks.
中文： 在聯合國氣候談判架構（《巴黎協定》機制）下，各國被要求每五年更新並提交更具雄心的「國家自主貢獻」（NDCs，即減排承諾）。2028年底的第33屆聯合國氣候變化大會（Cop33）正值第二輪全球盤點與承諾繳交期。若聯合國政府間氣候變化專門委員會（IPCC）的權威科學報告延至2029年以後，全球各國將在缺乏最新科學數據支撐的情況下制定國家政策，這被視為對全球氣候治理的一大挫敗。
EN： Negative inversion occurs when a negative or restrictive adverbial phrase (e.g., 'Not only') begins a clause. In such cases, subject-auxiliary inversion is mandatory, placing the auxiliary verb 'does' before the subject '2028'.
中文： 否定倒裝句（Negative Inversion）：當否定或具限制意義的副詞片語（如「Not only」）置於句首時，句子必須進行倒裝，將助動詞（此處為 does）置於主詞（2028）之前。
Not only did she complete the marathon, but she also broke the national record.
她不僅完成了馬拉松，還打破了全國紀錄。
EN： The correlative conjunction 'Not only..., but (also)...' joins two parallel clauses, emphasizing that both aspects are true and giving extra prominence to the second clause.
中文： 對等連接詞「Not only..., but (also)...」（不僅……而且……）用以連接兩個對等的子句，不僅強調兩項事實均成立，更進一步凸顯後半部分的內容。
Not only is the technology cost-effective, but it also significantly reduces emissions.
這項技術不僅具成本效益，而且還大幅減少了排放量。
EN： 'Whether' introduces a noun clause functioning as the direct object of the transitive verb 'scrutinise', presenting an indirect question regarding the sufficiency of pledges.
中文： 由「whether」引導的名詞子句作為及物動詞「scrutinise」（仔細審視）的直接受詞，表達「是否……」的間接疑問語意。
Inspectors will evaluate whether the current safety measures comply with federal regulations.
督察人員將評估現行的安全措施是否符合聯邦法規。
EN： Under the 2015 Paris Agreement, the 'Global Stocktake' (GST) is a critical five-year cyclical mechanism designed to assess collective progress toward meeting the treaty's long-term temperature targets. The first stocktake concluded at COP28 in 2023, making the upcoming 2028 review pivotal for ratcheting up national climate commitments (NDCs).
中文： 根據2015年《巴黎協定》，「全球盤點」（Global Stocktake, GST）是一項每五年進行一次的核心檢視機制，旨在評估各國在實現長期溫控目標上的集體進展。首次盤點於2023年的第28屆聯合國氣候變化大會（COP28）完成，因此2028年的第二次盤點對於督促各國提高國家自主貢獻（NDC）承諾至關重要。
EN： A noun clause introduced by 'Whether... or...' functions here as the subject of the entire sentence. When an entire clause acts as the subject, it takes a singular verb (here, 'remains'). This structure is commonly used in formal and analytical writing to present balanced alternatives or uncertainties.
中文： 由「Whether... or...」引導的名詞子句在句中作整句話的主詞。當整個子句充當主詞時，主句動詞須採用單數形式（本句中為「remains」）。此結構常見於正式與分析性文體中，用來客觀陳述兩種對立或並列的可能性與不確定性。
Whether the policy will succeed or fail depends entirely on public cooperation.
這項政策究竟會成功還是失敗，完全取決於大眾的配合。
EN： The linking verb 'remain' takes a noun phrase ('a matter of intense debate') as a subject complement, expressing a continuing state or unresolved status. 'A matter of [noun/adjective]' is an idiomatic academic/journalistic colocation used to characterize issues.
中文： 連綴動詞「remain」在此接名詞片語「a matter of intense debate」作為主詞補語，表達某種持續存在或尚未定論的狀態。「A matter of + 名詞」為學術與新聞英文中常見的高階搭配詞，用於界定問題的性質。
The origin of the artifact remains a subject of ongoing investigation.
該文物的起源目前仍是一項持續調查中的課題。
EN： In climate diplomacy under the IPCC framework, scientific assessment and international politics are deeply intertwined. Developing nations and major fossil-fuel exporters frequently argue that research from developed Western institutions dominates IPCC literature, raising methodological questions that often overlap with strategic national economic interests.
中文： 在聯合國政府間氣候變化專門委員會（IPCC）的氣候外交框架下，科學評估與國際政治高度交織。發展中國家及化石燃料主要出口國常質疑已開發國家的科研機構主導了報告內容；這種對「方法學與數據」的質疑，往往同時涉及各國在減排承諾與經濟利益上的戰略考量。
重要單字附有 IPA 發音、定義、例句和互動式測驗。
在本文中： 關鍵的、具有決定性影響的
在本文中： 僵局、相持不下的局面
在本文中： 主張、堅稱
在本文中： 使產生偏差、歪曲
在本文中： 承諾、誓言（尤指減碳或政策承諾）
在本文中： 仔細審查、徹底檢驗
在本文中： 地緣政治的
片語包含類型標示、雙語定義、用法說明和例句。
A definite, fixed schedule or timeline that is unlikely to change
明確的時間表
A periodic review mechanism established under the Paris Agreement to assess the world's collective progress toward climate goals
全球盤點
A subject or issue that causes strong disagreement and serious discussion
爭論激烈的事情