EN： The present perfect tense ('has identified') is used here to report a recent, noteworthy event or discovery that has current relevance, which is a standard convention in scientific and journalistic writing.
中文： 现在完成式（'has identified'）在此用于报道一项最近发生、且对现今具有重要意义的重大发现或事件，这是科学和新闻写作中的标准用法。
Astronomers have detected water vapor in the atmosphere of a distant exoplanet.
天文学家在一颗遥远的太阳系外行星的大气中检测到了水蒸气。
EN： The present participle clause ('marking...') acts as a non-defining relative clause, modifying the entire preceding clause. It is used to describe the immediate consequence or significance of the action in the main clause.
中文： 现在分词引导的从属从句（'marking...'）在此作为非限定性修饰语，修饰前面整个主句。它用来描述主句动作所带来的直接结果或重要影响。
The company launched its new product line, doubling its market share within three months.
该公司推出了新的产品线，在三个月内使其市场份额翻倍。
EN： The compound noun modifier 'previously unknown' consists of an adverb ('previously') modifying an adjective ('unknown'), which together modify the noun 'type'. This structure is highly efficient for packing descriptive details before a noun.
中文： 复合名词修饰语「previously unknown」由副词（previously）修饰形容词（unknown）组成，两者共同修饰名词「type」。这种结构在名词前堆叠描述性细节时非常高效。
EN： The term 'Red Planet' is a widely recognized astronomical and cultural nickname for Mars, derived from its reddish appearance caused by iron oxide (rust) on its surface. In scientific journalism, using such synonyms helps avoid repetitive language.
中文： 「紅色星球」（Red Planet）是國際上對火星廣為人知的文化與天文別稱，源於其表面富含氧化鐵（鐵鏽）而呈現的紅色外觀。在科學新聞報導中，使用此類同義詞能有效避免文字重複，增加文章的生動性。
EN： The non-defining relative clause (introduced by ', who') is used to add extra, non-essential information about a noun (planetary scientists) that has already been clearly identified. Unlike defining relative clauses, it must be preceded by a comma and cannot use the relative pronoun 'that'.
中文： 非限定性关系从句（由「, who」引导）用于对已经明确定义的名词（行星科学家）添加额外的、非必要的补充说明。与限定性关系从句不同，非限定性关系从句前必须加上逗号，且不能使用关系代词「that」。
The lead researcher, who has studied Mars for decades, presented the findings yesterday.
首席研究员昨天发表了这项发现，他已经研究火星数十年了。
EN： The present perfect tense ('has generated') is used to describe an action that occurred at an unspecified time in the past and has a direct relevance or impact on the present situation.
中文： 现在完成式（「has generated」）用于描述在过去不特定时间发生、且对现在状况有直接关联或影响的动作。
The new telescope has provided unprecedented images of deep space.
这架新望远镜已经提供了前所未有的深空影像。
EN： The relative clause 'that prevailed on Mars...' uses the past tense verb 'prevailed' to describe conditions that existed continuously or commonly in a specific historical period (over four billion years ago).
中文： 关系从句「that prevailed on Mars...」使用过去式动词「prevailed」来描述在特定历史时期（四十多亿年前）持续存在或普遍盛行的环境条件。
We must adapt to the economic conditions that prevail in the market today.
我们必须适应现今市场上普遍存在的经济条件。
EN： The prepositional phrase 'Unlike [Noun]' is used to introduce a contrast between two entities. It is followed by a noun phrase, which in this sentence is modified by a non-defining relative clause ('where...') describing the unique conditions of the first entity.
中文： 介词短语「Unlike [名词]」（有别于……）用于引入两个事物之间的对比。其后接名词短语，在本句中该名词短语由非限定性关系从句（「where...」）修饰，用以描述第一个事物的独特状况。
Unlike Earth, which has a thick atmosphere, Mars has a very thin layer of gases.
有别于拥有浓厚大气层的地球，火星的大气层非常稀薄。
EN： The non-defining relative clause introduced by 'where' provides additional, non-essential information about the place ('Earth'). It is set off by commas and describes the ongoing geological processes occurring there.
中文： 由关系副词「where」引导的非限定性关系从句，针对地点（「地球」）提供额外的、非必要的补充信息。该从句前后用逗号隔开，描述了该处持续发生的地质活动。
We visited the laboratory, where researchers were analyzing Martian soil samples.
我们参观了实验室，研究人员正在那里分析火星的土壤样本。
EN： The verb 'retain' is used with the object 'much of its ancient geological record' and the object complement 'intact' (an adjective). This structure ('retain + object + adjective') describes the state in which the object is kept.
中文： 动词「retain」（保留）与宾语「much of its ancient geological record」（其大部分古老的地质记录）以及宾语补语「intact」（形容词，意为完整无缺的）连用。此结构（retain + 宾语 + 形容词）用以描述宾语被保存下来的状态。
Despite the passage of billions of years, the crater has retained its circular shape intact.
尽管经历了数十亿年的时间，该撞击坑依然完整地保留了其圆形外观。
EN： The use of a non-defining relative clause reduced to a past participle phrase ('widely recognized as...') to provide non-essential, parenthetical information about the subject. This structure is set off by commas and functions as an adjective phrase.
中文： 使用省略了关系代词与 be 动词的非限定性关系从句（简化为过去分词短语「widely recognized as...」），用以对主语提供非必要、补充说明的信息。此结构前后以逗号隔开，起形容词短语的作用。
The painting, meticulously restored by experts, is now on display at the national museum.
这幅由专家精心修复的画作，现在正在国家博物馆展出。
EN： The phrasal verb 'serve as' is used to describe the function, role, or status of someone or something, meaning 'to act as' or 'to play the part of'. It is highly common in academic and formal writing.
中文： 短语动词「serve as」用于描述某人或某事物的功用、角色或身份，意为“充当”、“作为”或“扮演……的角色”。这在学术和正式写作中非常常见。
The old lighthouse serves as a historical landmark for the coastal town.
这座旧灯塔充当了这座沿海小镇的历史地标。
EN： The construction 'one of + plural noun' ('one of geology's most revealing minerals') is used to single out one member from a group. Note that the noun following 'one of' must be plural ('minerals'), while the verb agreeing with the subject 'one' remains singular ('serves').
中文： 结构「one of + 复数名词」（如「one of geology's most revealing minerals」）用于从一群中挑选出一个成员。请注意，「one of」后面的名词必须是复数形式（「minerals」），而动词则与主语「one」保持一致，用单数形式（「serves」）。
She is considered one of the most influential scientists of our generation.
她被公认为是我们这一代最具影响力的科学家之一。
EN： The relative pronoun 'which' can be used to introduce a non-defining relative clause that modifies the entire preceding clause rather than a single noun. In this function, it is always preceded by a comma and often translates to 'which means...' or 'which shows...'.
中文： 关系代词「which」可用于引导非限定性关系从句，用以修饰前面整个从句，而非单个名词。在此用法中，其前面必定有逗号，常译为“这意味着……”或“这显示出……”。
The temperature dropped below freezing, which caused the water pipes to burst.
气温降至冰点以下，这导致了水管破裂。
EN： The prepositional phrase 'in which' is used to introduce a relative clause modifying a noun of place, situation, or abstract environment (here, 'the environment'). It is equivalent to 'where' but is more formal and precise in scientific or academic writing.
中文： 介词短语「in which」用于引导关系从句，修饰表示地点、情境或抽象环境的名词（此处为“the environment”）。它相当于“where”，但在学术或科学写作中更为正式且精确。
This is the laboratory in which the groundbreaking experiments were conducted.
这就是进行那些突破性实验的实验室。
EN： The adverb 'exclusively' is used to restrict the action of the verb to a single specified condition or group. Positioned between the subject/auxiliary and the main verb, or before a prepositional phrase, it emphasizes strict limitation.
中文： 副词「exclusively」（专门地、完全地）用于将动词的动作限制在单一特定条件或群体中。它置于主语/助动词与主要动词之间，或置于介词短语之前，用以强调严格的限制。
This software is designed exclusively for professional graphic designers.
这款软件是专门为专业美工设计师设计的。
EN： This sentence uses an inverted conditional structure (also known as 'had/were/should inversion') to express a hypothetical situation in the future or present. The conjunction 'if' is omitted, and the auxiliary verb 'were' is placed before the subject 'scientists'. This structure is highly formal and common in academic or journalistic registers.
中文： 本句使用了倒装条件句结构（亦称为“had/were/should 倒装”）来表示对现在或未来情况的假设。此结构省略了连接词“if”，并将助动词“were”置于主语“scientists”之前。这种结构非常正式，常见于学术或新闻写作中。
Were the government to implement these policies, the economy would recover much faster.
要是政府实施这些政策，经济将会复苏得快得多。
EN： The modal verb 'could' is used here in the apodosis (the main clause of the conditional sentence) to express hypothetical ability or possibility in a conditional context, paired with the bare infinitive 'reconstruct'.
中文： 情态动词「could」在此处用于条件句的主句中，与不带 to 的不定式「reconstruct」连用，用以表达在假设情境下的能力或可能性。
If we had more funding, we could conduct a more thorough investigation.
如果我们有更多资金，我们就能进行更彻底的调查。
EN： The prepositional phrase 'of...' is used to indicate affiliation or belonging, establishing a hierarchical relationship from the individual to the larger institution (Professor -> University -> School).
中文： 介词短语「of...」用于表示隶属关系或归属，建立起从个人到更大机构的层级关系（教授 -> 大学 -> 学院）。
Dr. Smith of the Department of Physics led the project.
物理系的史密斯博士领导了这个项目。
EN： The phrasal verb 'contribute to' means to give something, such as money, effort, or time, to help achieve or provide something. In academic contexts, it signifies active participation in a research project or publication.
中文： 短语动词「contribute to」意为贡献、捐助或参与，以帮助达成或提供某事。在学术语境中，它表示积极参与研究项目或发表成果。
Many factors contributed to the success of the scientific expedition.
许多因素促成了这次科学考察的成功。
EN： The University of Portsmouth is a public university in the city of Portsmouth, England. In British higher education, academic departments are often structured as 'Schools' (e.g., School of the Environment and Life Sciences) which represent specific interdisciplinary fields of research and teaching.
中文： 樸茨茅斯大學是位於英國樸茨茅斯的一所公立大學。在英國高等教育體系中，學術部門通常被組織為「Schools」（例如環境與生命科學學院），代表特定的跨學科研究與教學領域。
EN： The noun clause introduced by 'that' functions as the direct object of the reporting verb 'emphasized'. It allows the speaker to report a statement, belief, or fact in a formal, structured manner.
中文： 由「that」引导的名词从句作为报道动词「emphasized」（强调）的直接宾语。这种结构常用于正式语境中，用以陈述某个观点、事实或声明。
The scientist argued that the newly discovered mineral could redefine our understanding of planetary formation.
科学家主张，新发现的矿物可能会重新定义我们对行星形成的理解。
EN： The pronoun 'one' is used as an appositive to rename and elaborate on 'a unique archive'. It is followed by a restrictive relative clause ('that could shed light...') to provide essential details about the noun it refers to.
中文： 代词「one」在此用作同位语，用来重新指代并详细阐述前面的「a unique archive」（独特的档案）。其后接限制性关系从句（that could shed light...），以提供关于该名词的关键细节。
She presented a bold theory, one that challenged decades of established scientific consensus.
她提出了一个大胆的理论，一个挑战了数十年既定科学共识的理论。
EN： The idiom 'shed light on' means to make something clearer or easier to understand by providing new information. It is highly common in academic and journalistic registers.
中文： 短语「shed light on」字面意思是“将光芒洒在……之上”，意译为“阐明”或“有助于解释”，指通过提供新信息使某事更容易理解。这在学术与新闻英语中非常常见。
Further analysis of the soil samples will shed light on the history of liquid water on Mars.
对土壤样本的进一步分析将有助于阐明火星上液态水的历史。
EN： The modal perfect structure 'could + have + past participle' is used here to express a past possibility or to ask a speculative question about a past event. In this interrogative form, it questions the likelihood of a past scenario.
中文： 情态助动词完成式结构「could + have + 过去分词」在此用于表示对过去可能性的推测，或针对过去发生的事件提出假设性疑问。在此疑问句型中，它用来质疑某个过去情境的可能性。
Could the ancient civilization have possessed such advanced technology?
这个古老文明难道可能拥有过如此先进的科技吗？
EN： The comparative modifier 'far more... than' is used to emphasize a significant difference between two things. 'Far' acts as an intensifier before the comparative adjective 'more complex'.
中文： 比较级修饰语「far more... than」（远比……更……）用于强调两者之间的巨大差异。「far」在此作为加强语气副词，修饰比较级形容词「more complex」。
The new algorithm is far more efficient than the previous version.
这个新算法远比之前的版本更有效率。
EN： The past perfect tense 'had + past participle' (had previously assumed) is used to describe an action or state that occurred before another point in the past (the geological processes themselves).
中文： 过去完成式「had + 过去分词」（had previously assumed）用于描述在过去某个时间点或动作（即地质过程本身）之前，就已经发生或存在的动作或状态。
The results were different from what the researchers had originally predicted.
结果与研究人员最初预测的不同。
EN： The verb 'underscore' is a formal synonym for 'emphasize' or 'highlight', often used in academic and journalistic writing to draw attention to a crucial fact or finding.
中文： 动词「underscore」是「emphasize」（强调）或「highlight」（突显）的正式同义词，常用于学术和新闻写作中，以吸引读者注意某个关键事实或发现。
The recent data underscores the urgent need for reform in the healthcare system.
最近的数据突显了医疗体系改革的迫切需求。
EN： The gerund phrase 'studying Martian rocks' acts as the object of the preposition 'of'. Gerunds (-ing forms acting as nouns) can take their own direct objects (here, 'Martian rocks') while functioning as a noun phrase within the larger sentence.
中文： 动名词短语「studying Martian rocks」作为介词「of」的宾语。动名词（起名词作用的 -ing 形式）在句子中发挥名词短语功能的同时，也可以带有自己的直接宾语（此处为「Martian rocks」）。
She is dedicated to preserving ancient historical documents.
她致力于保存古代历史文献。
EN： The metaphor 'as windows into...' is used to describe how a specific subject or object provides a clear view, understanding, or insight into a broader, often inaccessible topic (such as the past).
中文： 隐喻「as windows into...」（作为通往……的窗口）用于描述某个特定主题或物体如何提供对更广泛、通常难以触及的主题（如过去）的清晰视角、理解或洞察。
These diaries serve as windows into the daily lives of ordinary citizens during the war.
这些日记成为了解战争期间普通市民日常生活的窗口。
EN： The phrasal verb 'act as' is used to describe the function or role of someone or something, especially when it is not its primary or original purpose. It is synonymous with 'serve as'.
中文： 短语动词「act as」用于描述某人或某事所起的作用或扮演的角色，特别是当这并非其原本或主要的目的时。其同义词为「serve as」（充当/起…作用）。
The old warehouse acts as a temporary shelter during the winter months.
这座旧仓库在冬季月份充当临时避难所。
EN： The present participle phrase 'preserving...' functions as an adverbial modifier (a participle clause), expressing a simultaneous action or a direct result of the main clause. It shares the same logical subject ('Each rare specimen').
中文： 现在分词短语「preserving...」在此用作副词性修饰语（分词构句），表示与主句动作同时发生的行为或其直接结果。其逻辑主语与主句相同（即“Each rare specimen”）。
The government passed a new law, protecting endangered species from hunters.
政府通过了一项新法律，保护濒危物种免受猎人捕杀。
EN： The relative clause 'that vanished billions of years ago' uses the relative pronoun 'that' to modify the noun 'conditions'. The past tense 'vanished' indicates an action completed in the distant past.
中文： 关系从句「that vanished billions of years ago」使用关系代词「that」来修饰名词「conditions」（条件/状况）。过去式动词「vanished」表示在遥远过去已经完成的动作。
We are studying civilizations that flourished thousands of years ago.
我们正在研究数千年前繁荣兴盛的文明。
EN： The concept of a 'time capsule' is deeply embedded in modern scientific and popular culture, referring to a historic cache of goods or information intended as a deliberate method of communication with future people. In planetary science, pristine geological samples (like those from Mars or the Moon) are metaphorically called 'time capsules' because, unlike Earth's constantly recycled crust, they remain unchanged for billions of years, preserving the history of the early solar system.
中文： 「時間膠囊」（time capsule）的概念深植於現代科學與流行文化中，原指刻意埋藏、用以與未來人類溝通的歷史物品或資訊載體。在行星科學中，未受破壞的地質樣本（如來自火星或月球的樣本）常被隱喻為「時間膠囊」，因為與地球不斷循環重塑的地殼不同，它們在數十億年間保持不變，完整保存了早期太陽系的歷史。
EN： The verb 'caution' is a reporting verb that can take a 'that'-clause as its direct object. It is used to convey a warning or a statement of caution, often in formal, academic, or scientific contexts.
中文： 动词“caution”（警告/提醒）是一个转述动词，后面可接“that”引导的从句作为直接宾语。常用于正式、学术或科学语境中，用以传达警告或谨慎的声明。
Experts have cautioned that the economic recovery could be slower than anticipated.
专家们警告，经济复苏的速度可能会比预期要慢。
EN： The pronoun 'much' can function as the subject of a clause, meaning 'a large amount' or 'many things'. It is treated as singular, which is why it is followed by the singular verb 'remains'.
中文： 代词「much」可作为从句的主语，表示“许多事物”或“很大程度上”。它被视为单数，因此后面接单数动词「remains」。
Although the investigation is complete, much remains to be done.
虽然调查已经结束，但仍有许多工作有待完成。
EN： The compound adjective 'garnet-bearing' is formed by combining a noun ('garnet') and a present participle ('bearing'). This structure (noun + present participle) is commonly used in scientific and technical English to describe something that contains or carries a specific substance.
中文： 复合形容词「garnet-bearing」（含石榴石的）是由名词（garnet）和现在分词（bearing）组合而成。这种“名词 + 现在分词”的结构在科学和技术英语中非常常见，用来描述含有或携带某种特定物质的事物。
The researchers analyzed several gold-bearing quartz veins in the region.
研究人员分析了该地区的几处含金石英脉。
EN： The noun phrase 'a glimpse into...' is commonly used with the adjective 'tantalizing' to describe a brief but exciting look at something. It is followed by a noun phrase or a noun clause (such as a 'how'-clause) acting as the prepositional object of 'into'.
中文： 名词短语「a glimpse into...」（对……的一瞥）常与形容词「tantalizing」（诱人的、吊人胃口的）搭配，用来描述对某事物短暂但令人兴奋的窥探。其后接名词短语或名词从句（如 how 引导的从句）作为介词「into」的宾语。
The newly discovered diary offers a fascinating glimpse into the daily life of the ancient emperor.
这本新发现的日记让人们得以一窥这位古代皇帝引人入胜的日常生活。
EN： The verb 'transition' is used intransitively here, paired with 'from... into...' to describe a complete change or evolution from one state or form to another. It is more formal than 'change' or 'turn'.
中文： 动词「transition」在此作不及物动词，与「from... into...」搭配，用来描述从一种状态或形式完全转变、演变为另一种。这比「change」或「turn」更正式。
Over several decades, the small fishing village transitioned from a quiet coastal settlement into a bustling metropolis.
在几十年间，这个小渔村从一个宁静的沿海聚落转变为一个繁华的大都市。
EN： The clause 'we observe today' is a defining relative clause modifying the noun phrase 'the cold, arid desert'. The relative pronoun 'which' or 'that' has been omitted because it functions as the direct object of the verb 'observe'.
中文： 从句「we observe today」是一个限定性关系从句，修饰名词短语「the cold, arid desert」。关系代词「which」或「that」被省略了，因为它在从句中担任动词「observe」的直接宾语。
The pristine forest we protect today is home to several endangered species.
我们今天所保护的这片原始森林是几种濒危物种的家园。
EN： In scientific writing, Mars is frequently referred to as a 'desert' or 'arid' world in contrast to its hypothetical wet, geologically active past. The transition of Mars from a warm, wet planet to a cold, dry one is one of the central mysteries of modern planetary science, driving missions like NASA's Perseverance and Curiosity rovers.
中文： 在科學寫作中，火星經常被描述為一個「荒漠」或「乾燥的」世界，這與它假設中過去溫暖潮濕、地質活動活躍的時期形成鮮明對比。火星如何從一個溫暖、有水的星球轉變為如今寒冷、乾燥的星球，是現代行星科學的核心謎題之一，這也是 NASA 的「毅力號」和「好奇號」等火星探測任務的主要驅動力。
重要单词附有 IPA 发音、定义、例句和互动式测验。
在本文中： 持续不断地、永久地
在本文中： 完好无损的、未受损伤的
在本文中： 结晶化（此指岩石冷凝形成结晶的过程）
在本文中： 构成、组成
在本文中： 强调、突出（其重要性）
在本文中： 标本、样品
在本文中： 诱人的、令人心痒的（通常指看得到却得不到，在此指提供极具吸引力但仍不完整的线索）
在本文中： 干燥的、干旱的
片语包含类型标示、双语定义、用法说明和例句。
The scientific theory explaining the movement of the earth's crust.
板块构造论、板块运动
To help to explain something by providing new information about it.
阐明、为……提供线索
A container or object preserving historical records or objects, providing a representation of a specific era.
时空胶囊