2025 was among driest years on record for world’s rivers, study finds
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EN: The present perfect tense ('has revealed') is used in reporting research findings to indicate that a past study has present relevance and established authority, followed by a content clause ('that...') detailing the historical observation in the past simple ('endured').
A recent survey has confirmed that consumer confidence declined sharply over the fourth quarter.
EN: The superlative construction 'one of + possessive pronoun/determiner + superlative adjective + plural noun' ('one of their driest years') denotes membership in an extreme category. The post-nominal modifier 'in over three decades' establishes a temporal scope exceeding thirty years.
This metropolitan area is facing one of its coldest winters in nearly half a century.
EN: The word 'worldwide' functions here as a postpositive adjective (modifying the noun 'rivers' from behind), which is common for adverbs/adjectives of global distribution (e.g., 'citizens worldwide', 'sales worldwide').
Airports worldwide experienced significant delays following the software outage.
EN: In climate and environmental reporting, phrasing like 'endured one of their driest years in over three decades' highlights long-term baseline anomalies rather than short-term fluctuations. Hydrologists commonly evaluate trends against a 30-year climate normal baseline established by the World Meteorological Organisation.
EN: The past participle phrase 'conducted by...' acts as a reduced non-defining relative clause (which was conducted by...), set off by commas to provide non-essential supplementary information about the head noun 'The research'.
The report, published by an independent panel, highlighted significant flaws in the system.
EN: The idiomatic expression 'paint a [adjective] picture of something' means to describe or portray a situation in a specific light. Pairing it with 'sobering' (serious, solemn, thought-provoking) creates a formal, evocative tone typical of journalistic and academic prose.
Recent economic indicators paint a gloomy picture of the nation's financial recovery.
EN: The present participle 'deteriorating' functions attributively as an adjective before 'water cycle', emphasizing an ongoing, continuous process of decay or worsening conditions.
The country faces deteriorating diplomatic ties with its neighbors.
EN: The World Meteorological Organization (often spelled Organisation in British/international usage, as in the official UN body's title) is the specialized UN agency responsible for international cooperation on weather, climate, and hydrology. Official UN English documents commonly use British English spelling conventions.
EN: The past participle phrase 'stored on or beneath the Earth's surface' functions as a post-modifying reduced relative clause (short for 'which was/is stored...'). It directly modifies the noun phrase 'the total volume of freshwater'.
Carbon dioxide trapped in polar ice caps provides valuable data on prehistoric climates.
EN: The verb 'plummet' means to fall or drop steeply and rapidly. When expressing a degree of decrease reaching a specific benchmark or threshold, it is followed by the prepositional phrase 'to + [quantity/percentage] + below/above [norm]'.
During the economic recession, consumer confidence plummeted to 15% below historical averages.
EN: In environmental science reporting, statistics like '42% below normal' use 'normal' as a climatological term referring to standard multi-decade baseline averages (typically 30-year reference periods defined by the WMO). The strong verb 'plummet' reflects an increasing journalistic shift toward urgent climate terminology to reflect ecological severity.
EN: The verb 'encompass' is a formal, academic alternative to 'include' or 'contain'. It signifies that the subject completely surrounds, spans, or takes in a wide variety of constituent parts as an exhaustive or comprehensive scope.
The curriculum encompasses a wide range of subjects, from astrophysics to ancient philosophy.
EN: The phrase 'retained within vegetation' features a reduced relative clause where the past participle 'retained' acts as a post-nominal modifier describing 'water' (equivalent to 'water which is retained within vegetation'). This construction is common in scientific writing for conciseness.
The heat generated during the reaction must be dissipated quickly.
EN: Parallel listing: When listing a series of nouns or noun phrases as compound direct objects, each item typically shares equal grammatical status. In formal writing, the Oxford comma (placed before 'and') ensures clarity, especially when the final item contains its own modifiers.
We examined minerals, organic debris, trapped gases, and compounds dissolved in seawater.
EN: In hydrologic science and satellite monitoring (such as NASA's GRACE mission), this combined metric is formally known as 'Terrestrial Water Storage' (TWS). Explaining TWS in accessible news articles requires unpackaging the technical term into its visible and invisible components—from subterranean aquifers to plant moisture.
EN: The passive construction 'is further compounded by' uses the adverb 'further' (meaning additionally or to a greater degree) before the past participle 'compounded' (meaning made worse or aggravated). This is a formal, high-register structure used to explain escalating problems.
The supply chain disruptions were further compounded by unprecedented labor shortages.
EN: The non-restrictive relative clause introduced by 'which' provides extra, explanatory information about 'so-called weather whiplash events'. Set off by a comma, 'which' functions as the subject of the relative clause and refers back to the plural noun phrase 'events'.
The country suffered severe heatwaves, which triggered massive power outages across major cities.
EN: 'Weather whiplash' is an increasingly prominent scientific and journalistic metaphor borrowed from medical terminology (cervical acceleration-deceleration injury). In climatology, it describes rapid, extreme swings between meteorological opposites—such as severe drought immediately followed by catastrophic downpours—a hallmark of contemporary global warming.
EN: The conjunction 'while' is used here to introduce an adverbial clause of contrast/concession rather than time, highlighting two simultaneous yet differing extreme weather phenomena.
Some industries are flourishing under the new policies, while others are struggling to survive.
EN: The intransitive verb 'oscillate' followed by the prepositional phrase 'between A and B' denotes swinging or wavering between two extreme states, conditions, or limits.
His mood oscillated between boundless euphoria and profound despair.
EN: In climate science and environmental journalism, terms like 'weather whiplash' and descriptions of swings 'between devastating droughts and catastrophic flash flooding' reflect the modern shift from viewing climate change merely as gradual warming to recognizing it as an intensifier of abrupt, erratic hydrological extremes.
EN: The phrasal verb 'draw upon' (or 'draw on') means to make use of something (such as information, experience, or resources) as a source or basis for further action or research.
The committee drew upon extensive historical records to draft the new policy.
EN: The absolute construction / supplement 'all driven by observed weather data' functions as a reduced non-finite clause (or absolute phrase) providing additional descriptive detail about the preceding noun phrase ('thirteen global hydrological models'). The quantifier pronoun 'all' acts as the subject of the passive participle 'driven'.
The aircraft underwent testing under multiple extreme conditions, all monitored by sophisticated sensors.
EN: The word 'observed' functions here as a participial adjective modifying the compound noun phrase 'weather data', contrasting empirically measured data with modeled or estimated values.
There was a noticeable discrepancy between the projected temperatures and the observed reality.
EN: In climate and environmental science, distinguishes are strictly made between 'modeled/projected data' and 'observed data' (actual station measurements, satellite records). Emphasizing that hydrological models are 'driven by observed weather data' is a standard academic assurance of empirical rigor and real-world calibration.
EN: Reporting verb + noun clause complement: The pattern 'It found that...' uses an impersonal or study-referring pronoun 'It' followed by a declarative content clause acting as the direct object of 'found'. This structure is quintessential in academic and journalistic writing to report findings objectively.
The report revealed that over half of global wetlands have disappeared since 1900.
EN: Fractional and proportional subject-verb agreement: When fractions or percentages (e.g., 'one third of', 'percent of') modify a noun, the grammatical number of the governing verb corresponds to the head noun following 'of'. Here, 'rivers' is plural, so a plural conceptual agreement applies (though 'exhibited' is past tense and neutral in inflection).
Approximately two thirds of the coral reef are showing signs of severe bleaching.
EN: In hydrometeorology, 'normal flow conditions' refers to baseline hydrological discharge calculated over an internationally agreed 30-year climate normal (typically 1991–2020). Describing a drop to 'only one third' signals severe global drought pressure rather than minor seasonal fluctuation.
EN: Compound sentence with parallel quantitative structures: The coordinating conjunction 'and' connects two independent clauses that follow a parallel syntactic pattern: '[Percentage] + [verb] + [noun phrase describing hydrological conditions]'. Notice how '21%' stands alone as an elliptical subject, where 'of global river basin areas' is omitted because it is understood from the preceding clause.
Approximately 45% of participants favored the new policy, and 30% expressed strong opposition.
EN: Restrictive relative clause modifying 'flows': 'that were below or well below normal' functions as an adjectival clause defining the exact status of the flows. The degree adverb 'well' is paired with the preposition 'below' ('well below') to emphasize a substantial deviation from the baseline standard.
The reservoir's water levels remained well below capacity throughout the summer.
EN: Adverbial modifier in noun phrases ('abnormally elevated discharge rates'): The adverb 'abnormally' modifies the participial adjective 'elevated', which in turn modifies the compound noun 'discharge rates'. This layered modification is typical of academic and formal report registers to maintain objective, measurable descriptions.
Patients showed abnormally elevated enzyme levels during the acute phase.
EN: In hydrology and environmental reporting, 'discharge rates' refers specifically to the volume of water moving through a river channel per unit time (often cubic meters per second), while 'river basin' (or catchment area / watershed) is the fundamental geographical unit used for resource accounting. Reporting dry conditions and extreme flood-potential discharges simultaneously highlights the growing climate crisis phenomenon known as 'weather whiplash' or hydrological polarization.
EN: Apposition set off by commas: 'secretary general of the World Meteorological Organisation' is an appositive noun phrase identifying and explaining the proper noun 'Celeste Saulo'. In formal writing, official titles following a name are typically set off by commas and lowercased unless standing directly before the name.
António Guterres, secretary-general of the United Nations, urged global leaders to act immediately.
EN: Reporting verb with a 'that'-clause complement: The verb 'caution' functions here as a formal reporting verb introducing an indirect statement ('cautioned that...'). It conveys an authoritative warning, which carries more weight and urgency than neutral reporting verbs like 'said' or 'noted'.
Economic analysts cautioned that inflation might persist longer than previously projected.
EN: Use of 'effectively' as an adverbial stance marker meaning 'in effect' or 'virtually': It is paired here with the present continuous tense ('is depleting') to highlight an ongoing reality or metaphorical consequence, framing the situation not as an exaggeration, but as what the process practically amounts to.
By relying solely on non-renewable energy, the city is effectively borrowing from future generations.
EN: The phrase 'savings account' is used here as an evocative financial metaphor in climate discourse. Scientists frequently compare natural reserves—such as groundwater, glaciers, and deep aquifers—to a 'capital reserve' or 'savings account', contrasting them with rainfall or river flow, which serve as 'regular income'. Drawing down the 'savings account' signifies that humanity is consuming non-renewable reserves faster than natural precipitation can replenish them, risking long-term systemic bankruptcy.
EN: The sentence uses a reporting structure: a main clause in the simple past ('She emphasized') followed by a nominal 'that'-clause. Within the 'that'-clause, the present perfect tense ('has exhibited') is used to express a state or trend that began in the past (around 2014–2016) and continues to be relevant or ongoing up to the present moment.
The report revealed that atmospheric carbon dioxide levels have risen at an alarming rate since the late 19th century.
EN: In academic and scientific prose, pre-nominal modifier clustering is common. Here, 'global terrestrial water storage' consists of two adjectives ('global', 'terrestrial') modifying the compound noun 'water storage', and 'a persistent declining trend' combines an adjective ('persistent') and a participial adjective ('declining') to modify 'trend', packing rich scientific data concisely.
Scientists observed a steady upward trajectory in ocean surface temperatures.
EN: The prepositional phrase 'since approximately 2014 to 2016' blends 'since' (marking the starting point of an interval) with the range '2014 to 2016', modified by the hedging adverb 'approximately'. In scientific reporting, such hedging indicates an estimated or multi-year baseline period rather than a single definite point in time.
Deforestation rates have stabilized since roughly 2018 to 2020.
EN: In climate science and global policy communications (such as reports by the WMO and IPCC), 'terrestrial water storage' (TWS) is a rigorous hydrological metric combining all water on and beneath land (soil moisture, groundwater, snow, ice, surface water). Using neutral, formal verbs like 'exhibit a trend' rather than sensationalized terms maintains scientific credibility while conveying urgency.
EN: Inverted conditional clause with 'Were': In formal, literary, or high-register English, conditional clauses with 'if' can omit 'if' and invert the subject and auxiliary verb. The structure 'Were + subject + to-infinitive' expresses a hypothetical future condition (equivalent to 'If this trajectory were to continue').
Were negotiations to collapse, both nations would face severe economic fallout.
EN: Post-positive adjective / Predicative adjunct 'unchecked': Here, 'unchecked' functions as an adjective modifying the state resulting from or accompanying the action 'continue' (meaning 'without being stopped or restrained').
The disease spread unchecked throughout the vulnerable community.
EN: Linking verb 'prove' + adjective complement: 'Prove' is used as a copular (linking) verb meaning 'to turn out to be' or 'to be found to be over time', followed directly by an adjective (e.g., 'prove irreversible').
His warnings regarding market instability proved accurate.
EN: In scientific reporting, particularly regarding environmental governance and climate diplomacy, writers frequently employ high-register rhetorical devices like inversion ('Were this... to continue') rather than conversational structures ('If this continues...'). This stylistic choice conveys solemnity, urgency, and institutional authority without sounding overly alarmist.
EN: Personification with non-human subjects: In formal, journalistic, and academic registers, time periods, locations, or inanimate entities frequently serve as the grammatical subject of perception verbs like 'witness', 'see', or 'experience' (e.g., 'The 20th century saw...'). This elevates stylistic formality and places emphasis on the historical epoch rather than human observers.
The last decade has witnessed a dramatic surge in renewable energy adoption worldwide.
EN: Quantifier 'the fewest' with countable nouns: 'Fewest' is the superlative form of 'few', used exclusively with plural countable nouns (e.g., 'rivers') to denote the smallest number. It contrasts with 'the least', which modifies uncountable nouns (e.g., 'the least water'). In news journalism, this pattern is often post-modified by prepositional phrases (e.g., 'with normal flows') defining the precise attribute.
This quarter recorded the fewest consumer complaints of the entire fiscal year.
EN: Elliptical time clause with 'since records began': 'Since records began' is a standard journalistic and statistical idiom functioning as a temporal adjunct. 'Records' functions as the subject and 'began' as an intransitive verb, dating back to the inception of systematic data collection.
July was the hottest month globally since records began in the mid-nineteenth century.
EN: In climate science and meteorological reporting, the phrase 'since records began' typically refers to the start of standardized, instrument-based measurements rather than historical writing. For global river hydrology, satellite monitoring and international observation networks established comprehensive standard models in the early 1990s (hence 1991 as a baseline).
EN: Negative Inversion: When a negative or restrictive expression such as 'Not only' is placed at the beginning of a clause for rhetorical emphasis, subject-auxiliary inversion is required (auxiliary verb + subject + main verb).
Not only did they arrive late, but they also forgot to bring the tickets.
EN: Correlative Conjunction 'Not only... but (also)': Used to link two parallel clauses or ideas, emphasizing that both elements are true, with added focus on the second. The adverb 'also' can be placed between the auxiliary and the main verb.
Not only has the company reduced emissions, but it has also invested heavily in renewable energy.
EN: Present Perfect Tense with 'in recent years': 'Has accelerated' and 'has intensified' use the present perfect to describe changes or actions that began in the past and continue to have relevance or impact up to the present moment.
Deforestation has accelerated significantly in recent years due to expanding agriculture.
EN: In academic and journalistic writing on climate change, correlative structures with negative inversion (such as 'Not only has...') are frequently deployed to convey urgency and highlight multi-faceted crises. Rather than discussing drought or flood in isolation, scientific communicators increasingly emphasize the dual threat of resource loss and climate volatility.
EN: The structure 'with + noun/pronoun + participle' functions as an absolute construction providing contextual or causal background information to the main clause. Here, 'With 2025 ranking...' establishes the prevailing climatic condition.
With temperatures continuing to rise, glaciers are retreating at an unprecedented pace.
EN: In the phrase 'indispensable to mitigating', 'to' is a preposition (not part of an infinitive marker), and therefore must be followed by a gerund (-ing form) or a noun phrase.
International collaboration is vital to preserving global biodiversity.
EN: The past participle 'documented' is used as a post-positive modifier following the superlative phrase 'the warmest years ever', meaning 'that have ever been documented'.
This was one of the strongest storms ever recorded in the region.
EN: In climate science communications, phrases like 'ever documented' or 'on record' denote official observational datasets maintained by agencies like the WMO and NASA (dating back to the late 19th century). Furthermore, the pairing of 'urgent' and 'coordinated international action' reflects typical diplomatic and scientific discourse advocating for multilateral treaties.
Key vocabulary words with IPA pronunciation, definitions, example sentences, and interactive quizzes.
Phrases with type tags, bilingual definitions, usage notes, and example sentences.
Rapid and extreme transitions between opposing weather conditions, such as severe drought followed immediately by intense flooding.
To use something as a source, supply, or inspiration.
To keep developing or worsening without anyone stopping, regulating, or limiting it.
The total amount of water stored on and within the land surface, including soil moisture, snow, ice, groundwater, and surface water.