Writing About Science (H4)
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EN: Imperative sentences are used to give orders, instructions, or advice. They start directly with the base form of the verb (infinitive without 'to'), omitting the subject 'you' because it is understood.
Read the instructions before you start.
EN: An adjective clause (or relative clause) modifies a noun. Here, 'that interests you' is a defining relative clause modifying 'a topic'. 'That' acts as the subject of the relative clause.
Find a job that makes you happy.
EN: The transition word 'Moreover' is a conjunctive adverb used to add information that supports or extends the previous point. It is formal and typically placed at the beginning of a sentence, followed by a comma.
Moreover, the study highlights the importance of sleep.
EN: The modal verb 'should' is used to express advice, recommendation, or obligation. It is followed by the base form of the main verb (in this case, 'gather').
You should drink more water every day.
EN: In academic and professional English, 'solid facts' or 'solid evidence' is a common collocation. The word 'solid' metaphorically extends from 'firm and stable' to mean 'reliable, concrete, and difficult to dispute.' Using such collocations enhances the persuasiveness of your arguments.
EN: The transition phrase 'For example' is used as a sentence connector (adverbial link) to introduce an illustrative instance. It is typically followed by a comma and a complete independent clause.
For example, you can practice speaking every day.
EN: The modal verb 'can' is used here to express possibility or ability. It is followed by the base form of the main verb ('quote').
You can borrow books from the library.
EN: In academic and professional English writing, backing up claims with 'real studies' or empirical evidence is highly valued. It shifts the tone from personal opinion to objective authority, which is a key aspect of Western critical thinking and argumentative writing.
EN: Imperative sentences are used to give orders, advice, or instructions. They begin directly with the base form of the verb (e.g., 'avoid'), and the subject 'you' is understood but omitted.
Never make promises you cannot keep.
EN: An adjective clause (or relative clause) can modify a noun. In this sentence, '(that) you cannot prove' is a relative clause modifying 'claims'. The relative pronoun 'that' or 'which' is acting as the object of the verb 'prove' and is commonly omitted in English.
This is the book you recommended.
EN: The transition phrase 'In addition' is a conjunctive adverb used to add information or support a previous point. It is typically followed by a comma when starting a sentence.
In addition, we need to consider the budget.
EN: This sentence uses the imperative mood, which is used to give commands, instructions, or advice. In the imperative mood, the subject 'you' is omitted, and the sentence begins with the base form of the verb ('explain').
Read the instructions carefully before starting.
EN: The word 'Therefore' is a conjunctive adverb (連接副詞) used to show a cause-and-effect relationship. It is typically placed at the beginning of a sentence, followed by a comma, to connect the sentence to the previous idea.
Therefore, we decided to postpone the meeting.
EN: The simple future tense 'will follow' is formed with the modal verb 'will' followed by the base form of the verb. It is used here to express a logical prediction or consequence in the future.
If you practice daily, you will improve quickly.
EN: In English academic and professional writing, transition words like 'Therefore' are crucial for creating 'cohesion'—the logical flow of ideas. Using short sentences with clear logical connectors is highly valued in modern communication to avoid confusing the reader.
EN: The transitional phrase 'on the other hand' is a conjunctive adverbial used to introduce a contrasting point or perspective. It is typically followed by a comma when starting a sentence.
On the other hand, some people prefer to work from home.
EN: The verb 'confuse' is used here as an intransitive verb meaning 'to cause misunderstanding or uncertainty'. In this structure, the subject 'too many words' directly performs the action of causing confusion.
The instructions are unclear and only confuse.
EN: In English academic and professional writing, the phrase 'on the other hand' is highly common for presenting balanced arguments. It is often paired with 'on the one hand' in longer texts, though it can also stand alone to introduce a contrasting fact as seen here.
EN: The phrase 'as a result' is a transitional adverbial phrase used to introduce a logical consequence or effect of a previously mentioned action or situation. It is typically placed at the beginning of a sentence and followed by a comma.
She studied hard; as a result, she passed the exam.
EN: The verb 'work' is used here as an intransitive verb meaning 'to be effective' or 'to produce the desired result'. In this context, 'best' is an adverb in the superlative form modifying 'work'.
This new method works well for beginners.
EN: In English writing pedagogy, especially in academic and professional contexts, there is a strong cultural emphasis on clarity and conciseness. The advice 'short sentences work best' reflects the modern stylistic preference for direct communication over overly complex, flowery prose.
EN: The transition word 'Furthermore' is a conjunctive adverb used to introduce an additional point or support that strengthens the previous argument. It is typically placed at the beginning of a sentence and followed by a comma.
Furthermore, the study shows that regular exercise improves memory.
EN: The causative verb 'make' can be followed by an object and an adjective (make + object + adjective) to describe causing something to enter a particular state or possess a certain quality.
Her explanation made the complex theory simple.
EN: In English academic and professional writing, transition words like 'Furthermore' are highly valued for creating logical flow and coherence. Additionally, the concept of making abstract ideas 'concrete' through examples is a cornerstone of Western rhetorical style, which prioritizes clarity and evidence over purely theoretical assertions.
EN: The transition phrase 'In contrast' is used to introduce a statement that is very different from the previous one. It is typically followed by a comma when it begins a sentence.
In contrast, the second study showed a positive result.
EN: The simple present tense is used here to state a general truth or fact. The plural subject 'vague terms' agrees with the base form of the verb 'weaken'.
Clear explanations strengthen your essay.
EN: In English academic and professional writing, clarity and precision are highly valued. Using 'vague terms' (like 'things', 'stuff', or 'good') is often criticized because it weakens the writer's authority and argument. Transition words like 'In contrast' are essential for guiding the reader through logical arguments.
EN: Imperative sentences are used to give orders, instructions, or advice. They start directly with the base form of the verb (bare infinitive), omitting the subject 'you' which is understood.
Start the presentation with a warm greeting.
EN: The preposition 'with' is used here to introduce the instrument, means, or manner by which an action is performed. In this context, it indicates what should be used to complete the action of ending.
Open the box with this key.
EN: The transitional phrase 'In short' is used as a sentence adverbial to summarize a previous point or state a conclusion briefly.
In short, we must change our plan.
EN: The verb 'shares' is used here in the simple present tense with a third-person singular subject ('clear writing'), meaning to communicate or reveal a quality or state.
EN: This sentence reflects a core value in Western academic and professional writing: clarity and conciseness. It emphasizes that good writing is not about using complex vocabulary, but about expressing clear thoughts in a simple way.
EN: Gerund as Subject: A gerund (verb + -ing) can function as a noun and serve as the subject of a sentence. It is treated as a singular noun, so it takes a singular verb.
Reading books expands your mind.
EN: Relative Clause with 'that': A relative clause (adjective clause) can modify a noun (the antecedent). Here, 'that anyone can learn' modifies 'a skill'. 'That' acts as the object of the verb 'learn' in the relative clause.
This is a movie that everyone loves.
EN: The modal verb 'must' is used to express strong obligation or necessity. It is followed by the base form of the verb (in this case, 'pick').
You must submit the report by Friday.
EN: The infinitive phrase 'to explore' functions as an adjective (adjectival infinitive) modifying the noun 'question', indicating the purpose or action to be done to the noun.
She has a lot of work to do.
EN: Imperative sentences are used to give orders, instructions, or advice. They start with the base form of the verb (here, 'gather'), and the subject 'you' is understood but omitted.
Listen carefully to the instructions.
EN: Relative clauses (adjective clauses) modify nouns. In 'sources [that] you can trust', the relative pronoun 'that' (or 'which') is omitted because it acts as the object of the verb 'trust' in the relative clause.
This is the book I bought yesterday.
EN: The transition phrase 'For example' is used as a sentence connector (conjunctive adverb) to introduce an instance or illustration of a previous statement. It is typically followed by a comma when it starts a sentence.
For example, regular exercise can improve your sleep quality.
EN: The simple present tense is used here with a singular subject ('a good study'), requiring the verb 'give' to take the third-person singular -s ending ('gives') to state a general fact or truth.
A balanced diet provides essential nutrients for the body.
EN: The modal verb 'should' is used to express advice, recommendation, or obligation. It is followed by the base form of the verb (in this case, 'explain').
You should drink more water every day.
EN: The prepositional phrase 'in simple words' uses the preposition 'in' to express the medium, manner, or style of communication.
Please write the report in plain English.
EN: The transition phrase 'In addition' is a conjunctive adverb used to introduce extra information or support a previous point. It is typically followed by a comma when starting a sentence.
In addition, we need to consider the budget.
EN: The modal verb 'should' is used to express duty, obligation, or a strong recommendation. It is followed by the base form of the verb (here, 'focus').
You should drink more water every day.
EN: In English academic and professional writing, the 'one paragraph, one idea' rule is a fundamental principle of paragraph unity. It helps ensure clarity and logical flow, making it easier for readers to follow arguments.
EN: The transition phrase 'As a result' is a cohesive device used to introduce a logical consequence or effect of a previously mentioned action or state.
He didn't study for the exam. As a result, he failed.
EN: The verb 'feel' is a linking verb (copular verb) that is followed by an adjective (here, the past participle 'lost' functioning as an adjective) to describe the subject's state or emotion.
EN: The transition word 'Moreover' is a conjunctive adverb used to add information that supports or builds upon the previous point. It is typically placed at the beginning of a sentence and followed by a comma.
Moreover, the study shows that regular exercise improves memory.
EN: The phrasal verb 'turn (something) into (something else)' means to transform or change one thing into another. 'Turn' is the transitive verb, followed by the direct object, and 'into' is the preposition introducing the result of the transformation.
With hard work, she turned her hobby into a successful career.
EN: The transitional phrase 'on the other hand' is used to introduce a contrasting point or perspective. It is often paired with 'on the one hand' but can also stand alone to present an alternative argument.
The hotel is expensive; on the other hand, it is very close to the beach.
EN: The modal verb 'can' is used here to express possibility or potential outcome, suggesting that too much detail has the ability or tendency to obscure the main message.
Skipping breakfast can affect your concentration during the day.
EN: In English academic and professional writing, clarity and conciseness are highly valued. The phrase 'On the other hand' is a standard transition used to maintain a balanced argument, reflecting the cultural emphasis on logical structuring and presenting multiple sides of an issue before reaching a conclusion.
EN: Imperative sentences are used to give orders, advice, or instructions. They start directly with the base form of the verb (here, 'keep'), omitting the subject 'you' which is understood.
Keep the door closed at all times.
EN: The verb 'keep' can be used in the pattern 'keep + object + adjective' to mean causing someone or something to remain in a specified state.
Please keep your hands clean.
EN: In professional and academic English writing, clarity and conciseness are highly valued. The advice to 'keep sentences short and direct' reflects the modern stylistic preference for avoiding overly complex or flowery language, especially in scientific or business communication.
EN: The adverb 'Finally' is used as a transition word (or cohesive device) at the beginning of a sentence to introduce the last point, step, or conclusion in a sequence.
Finally, we must consider the environmental impact of this project.
EN: The phrasal verb 'tie something together' means to connect or unite different parts, ideas, or elements so that they form a coherent and organized whole.
The director used music to tie the different scenes of the movie together.
EN: In English academic and essay writing, a 'strong conclusion' is highly valued. It is not merely a summary of what has been written, but a synthesis of points that shows how they fit together to prove the main thesis, often leaving the reader with a final, impactful thought.
EN: The transition phrase 'In short' is used as a sentence connector (conjunctive adverb) to summarize previous points or state a conclusion briefly.
In short, we must change our plan immediately.
EN: The verb 'help' can be followed by an object and a bare infinitive (verb in its base form without 'to'). The structure is 'help + object + [to] do something'.
Regular exercise helps your body stay healthy.
EN: The sentence uses the present simple tense in a question format ('How do you start...?') to ask about a general habit, routine, or standard procedure. 'Do' acts as the auxiliary verb (helping verb), while 'start' is the main verb in its base form.
How do you make a cup of tea?
EN: The noun 'essay' is preceded by the indefinite article 'a' because it starts with a consonant sound in this context when preceded by the noun adjunct 'science' (which starts with the /s/ sound). 'Science' acts as a noun adjunct (a noun modifying another noun) to specify the type of essay.
She wants to write a history book.
EN: In English-speaking academic contexts, asking peers for advice on writing structures (like essays) is very common. Using a person's name at the end of a question, preceded by a comma, is a standard and polite way to direct a question to a specific person in a group or dialogue.
EN: The use of transition words (such as 'First') at the beginning of a sentence to establish chronological order or sequence in writing and speech.
First, we need to gather all the necessary ingredients.
EN: Adverbs of manner (such as 'clearly') typically modify verbs and are placed after the direct object to describe how an action is performed.
She explained the rules clearly to the students.
EN: In academic and professional English writing, clarity and structured sequencing (using signposts like 'First', 'Then', 'Finally') are highly valued. It shows respect for the reader's time and cognitive load.
EN: The use of the infinitive 'to support' (to + base verb) acts as an adverbial of purpose, explaining 'why' the action of adding facts is performed.
She saves money to buy a new laptop.
EN: The word 'each' is a determiner used with singular countable nouns (like 'point') to refer to all members of a group individually.
Each student received a book.
EN: The transition phrase 'For example' is used as an adverbial connector to introduce an instance or illustration of a previous statement. It is typically placed at the beginning of a sentence and followed by a comma.
For example, she loves reading historical novels.
EN: The past participle 'trusted' is used as an adjective modifying the noun 'study'. In English, past participles (verb + -ed) can function as adjectives to describe a state or a quality resulting from an action.
He is a trusted advisor to the president.
EN: In academic and professional English writing, citing or quoting a 'trusted study' is a standard way to build credibility (ethos). Using transition phrases like 'For example' helps structure arguments logically, which is highly valued in Western essay writing.
EN: The verb 'avoid' is followed by a gerund (verb-ing) or a noun. In this sentence, it is followed by the noun 'words'. It is incorrect to use an infinitive (to + verb) after 'avoid'.
She avoids driving during rush hour.
EN: The relative pronoun 'that' introduces a defining relative clause ('that confuse readers') to modify the noun 'words'. Since 'words' is plural, the relative pronoun acts as a plural subject, requiring the plural verb 'confuse' without an 's'.
I like books that inspire people.
EN: The transition phrase 'In addition' is used to add information or support an argument. It is typically placed at the beginning of a sentence and followed by a comma.
In addition, we need to consider the cost of the project.
EN: The verb 'keep' can be followed by an object and an adjective (keep + object + adjective) to describe maintaining a certain state or condition.
Please keep the door open.
EN: The transition phrase 'As a result' is used as a conjunctive adverb to introduce a logical consequence or effect of a previously stated action or situation.
He studied hard. As a result, he passed the exam.
EN: The construction 'subject + be + adjective + to-infinitive' (easy to follow) uses an active infinitive ('to follow') with a passive meaning, where the subject ('my ideas') is the logical object of the infinitive verb.
EN: The adverb 'Finally' is used as a transition word (or cohesive device) at the beginning of a sentence to introduce the last point, step, or item in a sequence.
Finally, we reached the top of the mountain.
EN: The phrasal verb 'end with' means to finish or conclude an activity, speech, or writing with a specific element or action.
EN: The transition phrase 'In short' is used as a sentence adverbial to summarize previous points or state a conclusion briefly.
In short, we must change our plan.
EN: The causative verb 'make' is used in the structure 'make + object + adjective' (make science clear) to mean causing someone or something to be in a particular state.
Regular exercise makes your body strong.
EN: The adverb 'therefore' is used as a transition to show cause and effect. When placed in the middle of a sentence (parenthetical position), it is set off by commas and adds a formal, logical flow to the statement.
Regular exercise, therefore, contributes to better health.
EN: The verb 'help' can be followed by an object and a bare infinitive (verb in its base form without 'to'). The pattern is: help + someone + do something.
This app helps students organize their schedule.
Key vocabulary words with IPA pronunciation, definitions, example sentences, and interactive quizzes.
Phrases with type tags, bilingual definitions, usage notes, and example sentences.
used to introduce a contrasting point of view, fact, or argument
because of something that has happened; consequently
in a way that shows a clear difference when compared with something else
to connect or bring different elements into a united whole