EN： The past participle phrase 'conducted by...' acts as an adjectival modifier (reduced relative clause) modifying the noun phrase 'A landmark study'. It is equivalent to 'which was conducted by...'.
中文： 過去分詞短語「conducted by...」（由……進行）作為形容詞性修飾語（簡化關係子句），修飾名詞短語「A landmark study」（一項里程碑式研究）。這相當於「which was conducted by...」。
The report published by the research team received global attention.
該研究團隊發表的報告引起了全球關注。
EN： The present perfect tense ('has established') is used to describe an action that occurred at an unspecified time in the past but has significant relevance or results in the present.
中文： 現在完成式（「has established」）用於描述在過去不特定時間發生、但對現在具有重要關聯或結果的動作。
Scientists have discovered a new method to purify contaminated water.
科學家們已經發現了一種淨化受污染水源的新方法。
EN： The correlative structure 'a connection between A and B' is used to link two distinct elements (prenatal exposure and subsequent development) to show their relationship.
中文： 相關結構「a connection between A and B」（A 與 B 之間的關聯）用於連結兩個不同的元素（產前暴露與隨後的發展），以顯示它們之間的關係。
There is a clear link between sleep deprivation and cognitive decline.
睡眠不足與認知能力下降之間存在著明確的聯繫。
EN： The term 'forever chemicals' is a popular, non-scientific designation for PFAS (per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances), highlighting their extreme persistence in the human body and the environment. This term has gained significant traction in Western public health discourse and media to emphasize environmental risks.
中文： 「forever chemicals」（永生化學物質）是 PFAS（全氟和多氟烷基物質）的通俗非科學名稱，強調它們在人體和環境中極難降解的特性。這個詞在西方公共衛生討論和媒體中被廣泛使用，用以強調環境健康風險。
EN： The structure 'be likely to + verb' is used to express probability. When modified by 'significantly more', it indicates a much higher statistical probability of an event occurring. In this sentence, 'were significantly more likely to have...' compares the probability between two groups.
中文： 結構「be likely to + 動詞」用於表示可能性。當被「significantly more」修飾時，表示某事件發生的統計機率顯著提高。在本句中，「were significantly more likely to have...」比較了兩組對象之間的可能性差異。
Patients who skip breakfast are significantly more likely to develop metabolic issues over time.
不吃早餐的患者隨著時間推移，發展出代謝問題的可能性顯著提高。
EN： The relative clause 'who later developed PMOS...' is an adjective clause modifying the noun 'daughters'. The relative pronoun 'who' acts as the subject of the relative clause, and the adverb 'later' indicates a subsequent development in the timeline.
中文： 關係子句「who later developed PMOS...」是一個形容詞子句，用來修飾名詞「daughters」（女兒）。關係代名詞「who」在關係子句中擔任主詞，而副詞「later」則表示在時間軸上隨後發生的發展。
The researchers tracked children who later showed exceptional talent in mathematics.
研究人員追蹤了後來在數學方面展現出非凡天賦的孩童。
EN： The prepositional phrase 'by their late teenage years' uses 'by' to mean 'not later than' or 'at some point before'. It establishes a temporal limit or deadline by which the development of the condition occurred.
中文： 介係詞片語「by their late teenage years」中的「by」表示「不遲於」或「在...之前某個時間點」。它設定了一個時間界限，即在該年齡段晚期或之前，該症狀已經發展出來。
Most individuals establish their core career goals by their late twenties.
大多數人在二十多歲晚期之前就會確立他們的核心職業目標。
EN： The term 'PFAS' (per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances) refers to a group of synthetic chemicals widely used in consumer products since the 1940s, often called 'forever chemicals' because they do not break down in the environment or the human body. This study highlights a growing public health concern in Western societies regarding environmental toxins and their multi-generational endocrine-disrupting effects, which has sparked intense regulatory debates in both the US and Europe.
中文： 「PFAS」（全氟和多氟烷基物質）是指自 1940 年代以來廣泛用於消費品的一組合成化學物質，因其在環境或人體中無法分解而常被稱為「永久化學物」。這項研究凸顯了西方社會對於環境毒素及其跨世代內分泌干擾效應日益增長的公共衛生擔憂，這在美歐等地引發了激烈的監管政策辯論。
EN： The past participle phrase 'formerly referred to as...' functions as a non-restrictive appositive modifier, providing additional historical or alternative naming information about the subject 'PMOS' without restricting its identity.
中文： 過去分詞短語「formerly referred to as...」（先前被稱為...）在此作為非限定性同位語修飾語，用以提供關於主詞「PMOS」的歷史名稱或替代名稱之額外資訊，而不限制其主詞本身的身份。
The country, formerly referred to as Burma, is now officially known as Myanmar.
這個國家先前被稱為緬甸，現在官方名稱為緬甸（Myanmar）。
EN： The passive construction 'is estimated to + infinitive' is used to report beliefs, estimates, or calculations objectively, especially when the exact agent of the estimation is general or unimportant.
中文： 被動結構「is estimated to + 不定詞」用於客觀地報導信念、估計或計算，特別是當估計的具體主體是泛指或不重要時。
The ancient temple is estimated to be over two thousand years old.
這座古老的神廟估計已有兩千多年的歷史。
EN： The linking verb 'remain' is followed by a past participle ('undiagnosed') functioning as a subject complement, describing a continuing state or condition of the subject.
中文： 連繫動詞「remain」後面接過去分詞（如「undiagnosed」）作為主詞補語，用以描述主詞持續處於某種狀態或情況。
Despite the investigation, many questions remain unanswered.
儘管進行了調查，許多問題仍然懸而未決。
EN： The transition from 'polycystic ovary syndrome' (PCOS) to 'polyendocrine metabolic ovarian syndrome' (PMOS) reflects an ongoing shift in the medical community to more accurately describe the condition. Rather than focusing solely on ovarian cysts (which are not always present), the new terminology emphasizes the broader endocrine and metabolic nature of the syndrome, highlighting how medical language evolves with scientific understanding.
中文： 從「多囊卵巢綜合症」（PCOS）過渡到「多囊內分泌代謝卵巢綜合症」（PMOS），反映了醫學界為了更準確描述該疾病而進行的持續變革。新術語不再僅僅關注卵巢囊腫（這並非總是出現），而是強調該綜合症更廣泛的內分泌和代謝本質，突顯了醫學語言如何隨著科學認識的深入而演變。
EN： The conjunction 'though' is used to introduce a subordinate clause that concedes a point, meaning 'despite the fact that' or 'although'. In formal and academic writing, it is often used to balance a strong claim with a necessary qualification or limitation.
中文： 連接詞「though」用於引導讓步從句，表示「儘管」或「雖然」。在正式與學術寫作中，它常用於在提出強力主張後，加上必要的限制或保留態度，以維持論述的客觀性。
The results of the experiment are promising, though the researchers admit that the sample size was relatively small.
實驗結果令人期待，儘管研究人員承認樣本數相對較小。
EN： The modal verb 'may' combined with the base verb 'constitute' expresses tentative possibility in academic register. 'Constitute' is a formal synonym for 'be' or 'make up', used here to link a cause (chemical exposure) to an effect (primary driver) without asserting absolute certainty.
中文： 情態助動詞「may」結合動詞原形「constitute」在學術語體中表達「溫和的推測或可能性」。「constitute」是「是」或「構成」的正式同義詞，在此用於將原因（化學物質暴露）與結果（主要誘因）連結起來，同時避免過於絕對的斷言。
These newly discovered documents may constitute the most important evidence in the case.
這些新發現的文件可能構成該案最重要的證據。
EN： The passive construction 'is warranted' is highly common in academic and professional English. 'Warrant' as a transitive verb means 'to justify or make necessary'. Using the passive voice ('is warranted') shifts the focus to the action (investigation) rather than who should perform it.
中文： 被動結構「is warranted」在學術與專業英語中極為常見。及物動詞「warrant」意為「使…顯得合理或有必要」。使用被動語態（is warranted）能將焦點轉移到動作（進一步調查）本身，而非執行該動作的主體。
Given the sudden drop in sales, immediate corrective action is warranted.
鑑於銷售額驟降，採取即時的糾正措施是有必要的。
EN： The phrase 'peer-reviewed paper' refers to a cornerstone of modern scientific integrity. Before a study is published in a reputable journal, it must be evaluated by independent experts (peers) in the same field to ensure its methodology, data, and conclusions are robust. This term highlights the high credibility of the study mentioned in the text.
中文： 「peer-reviewed paper」（經同儕審查的論文）指的是現代科學誠信的基石。在研究發表於信譽良好的期刊之前，必須接受同一領域獨立專家（同儕）的評估，以確保其研究方法、數據和結論的嚴謹性。這個詞強調了文中提到的研究具有極高的公信力。
EN： The phrasal verb 'build upon' (or 'build on') means to use something as a basis for further development. It is commonly used in academic and professional contexts to describe how new research, ideas, or systems expand on existing foundations.
中文： 片語動詞「build upon」（或「build on」）意為「以……為基礎」、「建立在……之上」。在學術和專業語境中，常用來描述新的研究、想法或系統如何拓展既有的基礎。
Our new marketing strategy builds upon the success of last year's campaign.
我們的新行銷策略是建立在去年活動成功的基礎之上。
EN： The past perfect tense ('had already linked') is used here to indicate an action that was completed before another action in the past (the publication or conduct of 'this study'). It emphasizes the chronological sequence of scientific discoveries.
中文： 此處使用過去完成式（「had already linked」）來表示在過去另一個動作（「這項研究」的發表或進行）之前就已經完成的動作。它強調了科學發現的時間先後順序。
By the time the new policy was announced, several studies had already linked the chemical to health risks.
在新政策宣布之前，已有幾項研究將該化學物質與健康風險聯繫在一起。
EN： The relative pronoun 'that' introduces a restrictive relative clause ('that had already linked...') modifying the noun 'research'. It specifies which research is being referred to, making it essential to the meaning of the sentence.
中文： 關係代名詞「that」引導限定關係子句（「that had already linked...」），用以修飾名詞「research」（研究）。它明確指出了所指的是哪一項研究，對句意而言至關重要。
The company adopted a technology that had already proven effective in Europe.
該公司採用了一項在歐洲已被證明有效的技術。
EN： Negative Inversion: When negative adverbs or adverbial phrases (such as 'never before', 'rarely', 'seldom', 'hardly') are placed at the beginning of a sentence for emphasis, the subject and the auxiliary verb are inverted (auxiliary verb + subject + main verb).
中文： 否定倒裝：當否定副詞或副詞片語（如 'never before'、'rarely'、'seldom'、'hardly'）放在句首以示強調時，主詞與助動詞的位置需要倒裝（助動詞 + 主詞 + 主要動詞）。
Never before had she witnessed such an extraordinary natural phenomenon.
在此之前，她從未見過如此非凡的自然現象。
EN： Noun Clause as Object: The wh-clause 'how prenatal exposure might contribute to the onset of PMOS in later life' acts as the direct object of the transitive verb 'examined'. The word order within the noun clause remains statement order (subject + verb), not question order.
中文： 名詞子句作受詞：由 wh- 引導的子句 'how prenatal exposure might contribute to the onset of PMOS in later life' 作為及物動詞 'examined' 的直接受詞。名詞子句內部的語序保持陳述句語序（主詞 + 動詞），而非疑問句語序。
The committee discussed how the new policy would affect local businesses.
委員會討論了新政策將如何影響當地企業。
EN： Collocation 'contribute to': The phrasal verb 'contribute to' means to help to cause an event or situation. Here, 'to' is a preposition, so it must be followed by a noun, pronoun, or gerund (in this case, the noun phrase 'the onset of PMOS').
中文： 固定搭配 'contribute to'：片語動詞 'contribute to' 意為「促成、導致」某個事件或情況。這裡的 'to' 是介係詞，因此後面必須接名詞、代名詞或動名詞（在此句中為名詞片語 'the onset of PMOS'）。
Stress can significantly contribute to high blood pressure.
壓力可能會顯著導致高血壓。
EN： The present perfect tense ('have argued') is used here to describe an action that began in the past and continues to have relevance, validity, or impact in the present. In academic and journalistic contexts, it introduces a current stance or ongoing debate.
中文： 現在完成式（have argued）在此處用於描述一個始於過去且在現在仍具備關聯性、有效性或影響力的動作。在學術與新聞語境中，它常用於引入當前的立場或持續進行中的討論。
Researchers have argued that early intervention is key to successful treatment.
研究人員主張，早期干預是成功治療的關鍵。
EN： The noun clause introduced by 'that' functions as the direct object of the reporting verb 'argued'. It allows the writer to report a belief, claim, or fact indirectly.
中文： 由「that」引導的名詞子句作為報導動詞「argued」的直接受詞。它使作者能夠間接地陳述某個信念、主張或事實。
The committee announced that the project would receive additional funding.
委員會宣布該專案將獲得額外資金。
EN： The classifier phrase 'a piece of' is used with the uncountable noun 'evidence' to make it countable. 'Crucial' acts as an attributive adjective modifying 'piece'.
中文： 量詞短語「a piece of」與不可數名詞「evidence」連用，使其可數。形容詞「crucial」作定語修飾「piece」。
The detective found a crucial piece of evidence hidden in the basement.
偵探在地下室發現了一件隱藏的關鍵證據。
EN： In Western scientific and public policy discourse, 'public health advocates' play a critical role in bridging the gap between academic research and government regulation. They often use scientific findings to lobby for stricter environmental laws, such as regulating synthetic chemicals like PFAS.
中文： 在西方科學與公共政策論述中，「公共衛生倡導者」在填補學術研究與政府監管之間的鴻溝方面扮演著關鍵角色。他們經常利用科學發現來遊說制定更嚴格的環境法規，例如管制像 PFAS 這樣的合成化學物質。
EN： Apposition is a grammatical relation where a noun phrase is placed next to another noun phrase to identify or explain it. In this sentence, 'a senior scientist with the Environmental Working Group...' is an appositive phrase that provides background information about the subject 'Tasha Stoiber'.
中文： 同位語（Apposition）是一種語法關係，將一個名詞短語置於另一個名詞短語旁邊，用以說明或解釋它。在本句中，「a senior scientist with the Environmental Working Group...」是一個同位語短語，用來提供主詞「塔莎·斯托伊伯」的背景資訊。
Dr. Aris, a leading expert in marine biology, delivered the keynote address.
海洋生物學領域的頂尖專家阿里斯博士發表了主題演講。
EN： Non-defining relative clauses (introduced by 'who' or 'which' and set off by commas) provide extra, non-essential information about a noun. Here, 'who reviewed the study independently' adds detail about Tasha Stoiber but is not required to identify her.
中文： 非限制性關係子句（由 'who' 或 'which' 引導並用逗號隔開）提供關於名詞的額外、非必要的資訊。在這裡，「who reviewed the study independently」增加了關於塔莎·斯托伊伯的細節，但並非識別她所必需的資訊。
My brother, who lives in New York, is coming to visit next week.
我那住在紐約的哥哥下週要來拜訪。
EN： The present participle phrase 'documenting specific harms...' acts as an adjective modifying the noun phrase 'a larger body of evidence'. It is a reduced relative clause, equivalent to 'which documents specific harms...'.
中文： 現在分詞短語「documenting specific harms...」充當形容詞，修飾名詞短語「a larger body of evidence」。這是一個簡化的關係子句，相當於「which documents specific harms...」。
The government released a report outlining the new economic policies.
政府發布了一份概述新經濟政策的報告。
EN： The mention of the 'Environmental Working Group' (EWG) reflects the prominent role of non-profit advocacy and research organizations in US environmental policy and public health. In the US, such independent groups often review scientific literature and lobby for stricter regulations on synthetic chemicals like PFAS, bridging the gap between academic science and public awareness.
中文： 提及「環境工作小組」（EWG）反映了非營利倡議與研究組織在美國環境政策和公共衛生中所扮演的重要角色。在美國，這類獨立團體經常審查科學文獻，並遊說政府對 PFAS 等合成化學物質實施更嚴格的監管，從而搭起學術科學與大眾意識之間的橋樑。
EN： The verb 'comprise' means 'to consist of' or 'to be made up of'. Unlike 'compose', which is typically used in the passive voice ('is composed of'), 'comprise' is used in the active voice to list the constituent parts of a whole. It does not require the preposition 'of' when used actively.
中文： 動詞「comprise」意為「包含」或「由……組成」。與通常用於被動語態的「compose」（is composed of）不同，「comprise」在主動語態中直接接其組成部分，表示整體包含哪些部分，且主動用法時後面不需接介係詞「of」。
The collection comprises over three hundred rare manuscripts from the medieval period.
該收藏包含三百多份中世紀時期的珍貴手稿。
EN： The phrase 'most frequently utilized...' is a reduced relative clause (or participle clause) modifying 'synthetic compounds'. It is shortened from 'which are most frequently utilized...'. The past participle 'utilized' is used because the compounds receive the action of being used.
中文： 短語「most frequently utilized...」是一個修飾「synthetic compounds」（合成化合物）的簡化關係子句（分詞子句），由「which are most frequently utilized...」簡化而來。此處使用過去分詞「utilized」是因為化合物是被動地被「利用」。
The techniques, originally developed in Japan, are now widely used worldwide.
這些最初在日本開發的技術，現在已在世界各地被廣泛採用。
EN： The suffix '-resistant' is combined with nouns (water, stain, grease) to form adjectives meaning 'able to resist' or 'proof against' the specified substance. This is a highly productive pattern in technical and commercial English.
中文： 字尾「-resistant」與名詞（water、stain、grease）結合形成形容詞，表示「能夠抵抗」或「防……」特定物質。這在技術和商業英語中是一種非常常見且多產的構詞模式。
The new smartphone features a scratch-resistant screen and heat-resistant casing.
這款新智慧型手機配備了防刮螢幕和耐熱外殼。
EN： PFAS (per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances) are often referred to as 'forever chemicals' in public discourse because they do not break down in the environment or the human body. The suffix '-resistant' highlighted in the sentence reflects the primary commercial appeal of these chemicals, which has led to their widespread use in consumer goods like non-stick cookware, water-repellent clothing, and stain-resistant carpets, despite growing environmental and health concerns.
中文： PFAS（全氟和多氟烷基物質）在公眾輿論中常被稱為「永久化學物」，因為它們在環境或人體中無法被分解。句子中強調的「-resistant」（防護/抵抗）字尾，反映了這些化學物質在商業上的主要吸引力，這導致它們被廣泛應用於不沾鍋、防潑水衣物和防污地毯等消費品中，儘管人們對其環境和健康危害的擔憂日益增加。
EN： The phrase 'Were it not for...' is a formal, inverted conditional structure used to express a hypothetical situation in the present or general time (equivalent to 'If it were not for...'). It indicates that the current situation depends entirely on the noun phrase that follows.
中文： 「Were it not for...」是一種正式且倒裝的條件句結構，用於表示與現在或一般事實相反的假設（相當於「If it were not for...」）。它表示目前的狀況完全取決於其後接的名詞片語。
Were it not for his timely advice, we might make a terrible mistake.
若非他及時提出建議，我們可能會犯下嚴重的錯誤。
EN： The main clause uses 'might never have + past participle' to express a hypothetical past possibility or consequence that did not actually happen, fitting into a mixed conditional context where a past result is linked to a general/present condition.
中文： 主句使用「might never have + 過去分詞」來表示過去可能發生但實際上並未發生的假設性結果，適用於混合條件句的語境中，將過去的結果與一般性/現在的條件連結起來。
Without your financial support, the project might never have been completed.
若沒有你的資金支持，這項專案可能永遠無法完成。
EN： The sentence discusses the environmental persistence of PFAS, often referred to as 'forever chemicals' in public health and environmental science. The formal register of the sentence ('Were it not for...', 'permeated... so thoroughly') reflects the serious, academic, and regulatory tone typical of high-level scientific journalism and policy debates in English-speaking countries.
中文： 本句討論了 PFAS（在公共衛生與環境科學中常被稱為「永久化學物」）在環境中的持久性。句子所使用的正式語體（如「Were it not for...」、「permeated... so thoroughly」）反映了英語國家中高階科學新聞和政策辯論中典型、嚴肅且具學術性的語調。
EN： The present perfect tense ('has linked') is used here to describe an action that started in the past and has strong relevance or continuing effects in the present, establishing a foundation of accepted scientific knowledge.
中文： 現在完成式（has linked）在此用於描述始於過去且對現在有強烈關聯或持續影響的動作，藉此建立已獲公認的科學知識基礎。
Recent studies have linked high sugar consumption to cardiovascular diseases.
最近的研究已將高糖攝取與心血管疾病聯繫起來。
EN： The present participle clause ('raising...') acts as an adverbial clause of result, showing an immediate consequence of the action described in the main clause. It functions similarly to ', which raises...'.
中文： 現在分詞引導的子句（raising...）在此作為表示結果的副詞子句，展現主要子句所述動作的直接後果。其功能類似於「, which raises...」。
The factory closed down, leaving hundreds of people unemployed.
工廠倒閉了，導致數百人失業。
EN： The past participle 'compromised' is used as an adjective meaning 'weakened or damaged'. It is commonly used in medical and scientific contexts to describe systems (like the immune system) that are not functioning at full capacity.
中文： 過去分詞「compromised」在此用作形容詞，意為「受損的、減弱的」。在醫學與科學語境中，常用於描述功能未完全發揮的系統（如免疫系統）。
Patients with compromised immune systems should avoid crowded places.
免疫系統受損的患者應避免前往擁擠的場所。
EN： In Western public health discourse, the regulation of synthetic chemicals like PFAS (often called 'forever chemicals' because they do not break down in the environment) is a highly debated topic. The phrase 'regulatory oversight' refers to the supervision by government bodies (such as the EPA in the US) which environmental advocates argue has been historically insufficient due to industry lobbying.
中文： 在西方公共衛生論述中，針對像 PFAS 這樣的合成化學物質（因其在環境中無法分解而常被稱為「永久化學物」）的監管是一個高度爭議的話題。句中的「regulatory oversight」（監管審查）指的是政府機構（如美國環保署 EPA）的監督，環保倡議人士認為，由於工業界的遊說，歷史上的監管力道一直嚴重不足。
重要單字附有 IPA 發音、定義、例句和互動式測驗。
在本文中： 具里程碑意義的、重大的
在本文中： 孕期的、產前的
在本文中： 隨後的、接續發生的
在本文中： 偏高的、升高的
在本文中： 構成、組成
在本文中： 有必要的、合理的
在本文中： 干擾、擾亂
在本文中： 異常、畸形
在本文中： 滲透、充斥於
在本文中： 受損的、受損害的
在本文中： 監管、監督
片語包含類型標示、雙語定義、用法說明和例句。
A popular term for PFAS (per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances), synthetic chemicals that do not break down in the environment or the human body.
永久性化學物質
An academic article that has been evaluated by other experts in the same field before publication to ensure its quality and scientific integrity.
經同行評審的論文
To use something as a basis or foundation for further development or research.
以……為基礎發展、建立在……之上
If it had not been for; used to show that something is the only reason why something else did not happen or is not true.
若非因為、要不是有……