EN： The simple past tense (e.g., 'caused') is used to express completed actions that occurred at a specific, known time in the past ('on 26 August 2026').
中文： 簡短過去式（例如 'caused'）用於表示在過去特定時間點（'on 26 August 2026'）已經完成的動作或事件。
The heavy rainstorm caused severe flooding in the city yesterday.
昨天強烈的暴風雨在城市裡引發了嚴重的洪水。
EN： Prepositional phrases indicating location ('on Langtang Lirung mountain', 'along the Nepal-China border') can modify preceding nouns to add clear spatial context.
中文： 介系詞片語表示位置（如 'on Langtang Lirung mountain' 或 'along the Nepal-China border'）可用於修飾前方的名詞，以提供明確的空間背景資訊。
The village along the river was evacuated after the storm.
沿著河流的村莊在暴風雨後進行了疏散。
EN： The Himalayan region, including the area around Langtang Lirung along the Nepal-China border, is highly susceptible to natural hazards such as glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs) and ice collapses due to steep topography and climate change impacts.
中文： 喜馬拉雅山脈地區（包括尼泊爾與中國邊境的朗塘里倫峰周邊）由於地勢陡峭以及氣候變遷的影響，極易發生冰川湖潰決洪水（GLOFs）與冰崩等自然災害。
EN： The past perfect tense ('had + past participle') is used to describe an action that happened before another past action or time. Here, 'had broken away' occurred before the scientists 'determined' it.
中文： 過去完成式（had + 過去分詞）用於表示在過去某個時間點或動作「之前」就已經發生的動作。在此句中，冰石「崩落（had broken away）」發生在科學家「確定（determined）」之前。
Rescue teams discovered that the landslide had blocked the main road hours before they arrived.
救援隊發現，在他們到達的數小時前，土石流就已經封鎖了主要道路。
EN： Present participle phrases (e.g., 'measuring...') can act as reduced relative clauses (short for 'which measured...') to modify a preceding noun directly.
中文： 現在分詞片語（如 measuring...）可用作簡化的關係子句（即 which measured... 的縮減），直接用來修飾前面的名詞。
A chunk of debris weighing nearly five tons fell onto the highway.
一塊重達將近五噸的碎片掉落到了高速公路上。
EN： Reduced relative clauses using past participles: A participle phrase (e.g., 'generated by the impact') can modify a noun directly, functioning as a shortened passive relative clause (short for 'which was generated by the impact').
中文： 過去分詞作後位修飾（簡化關係子句）：過去分詞片語（如 generated by the impact）可以直接修飾前面的名詞，相當於省略了「關係代名詞 + be 動詞」（原為 which was generated by the impact），用來表示被動意義的修飾。
The heat generated by the sun powers the entire ecosystem.
太陽所產生的熱能驅動了整個生態系統。
EN： Compound sentences with coordinating conjunctions: Two independent clauses can be joined by 'and' to show a logical sequence of events or added information.
中文： 對等連接詞引導的對等複合句：使用對等連接詞 'and' 連接兩個完整的獨立子句，用以呈現事件的先後順序或補充說明相關資訊。
The heavy rain flooded the streets, and the strong winds knocked down power lines.
暴雨淹沒了街道，而強風吹倒了電線。
EN： The relative pronoun 'that' introduces a restrictive relative clause, modifying the noun phrase 'a devastating wall of water and debris' and acting as the subject of the verb 'surged'.
中文： 關係代名詞「that」引導限定修飾的關係子句，用來修飾前方的名詞片語「毀滅性的水牆和碎屑」，並在該子句中擔任動詞「surged」的主詞。
The sudden storm generated a huge wave that swept across the coastal road.
突如其來的暴風雨產生了一股巨浪，橫掃了沿海公路。
EN： The preposition 'at' is used before noun phrases indicating rate, speed, or level (e.g., 'at terrifying speed') to describe how fast an action occurs.
中文： 介系詞「at」常用於表示速率、速度或等級的名詞片語前（例如「at terrifying speed」），用來描述動作發生的速度有多快。
The floodwaters advanced toward the village at an unprecedented rate.
洪水以前所未有的速度向村莊推進。
EN： The preposition 'with' followed by a noun (debris) and a present participle ('reaching') forms an absolute construction, used here to add extra descriptive detail or simultaneous circumstances to the main clause.
中文： 使用「with + 名詞 (debris) + 現在分詞 (reaching)」構成的複合結構（獨立分詞構句的一種變體），用來為主要子句補充說明伴隨發生的狀況或詳細背景。
The storm passed through the town, with heavy winds causing severe damage to several buildings.
暴風雨席捲了這個城鎮，強風對幾棟建築物造成了嚴重破壞。
EN： Participles can be used as adjectives before nouns. Here, 'reaching' is a present participle functioning as an active verb within the prepositional phrase, while 'flash flood' uses 'flash' as an attributive noun/modifier.
中文： 現在分詞（V-ing）可用於主動語態的補充說明，表示該名詞正在進行或達成的動作狀態。
The train arrived at the station, with passengers rushing to get on.
火車抵達車站，乘客們蜂擁上前準備上車。
EN： The phrase 'as well as' is a additive conjunction used to join two elements, meaning 'in addition to' or 'and also'. Unlike 'and', it places primary emphasis on the first element.
中文： 「as well as」是一個附加連接詞，意為「以及」或「還有」。與一般的「and」不同，它通常會將主要焦點放在前面提到的項目上。
The hotel provides free breakfast, as well as access to the gym.
這間飯店提供免費早餐，以及健身房的使用權限。
EN： The past simple tense ('devastated') is used to express a completed action that took place at a specific time in the past.
中文： 過去簡單式（如本句中的 devastated）用於表示在過去特定時間點已經完成的動作或發生的事件。
The strong earthquake damaged several historic buildings in the city center.
這場強烈地震損壞了市中心的幾座歷史建築。
EN： Rasuwa and Nuwakot are northern districts of Nepal bordering the Tibet Autonomous Region of China. Gyirong County (also spelled Kyirong) is a key cross-border trading hub between Nepal and China. Due to the steep Himalayan topography, natural disasters such as flash floods and landslides in this region often cause cross-border impacts, affecting communities on both sides of the frontier.
中文： 拉蘇瓦與努瓦科特是尼泊爾北部鄰近中國西藏自治區的地區，而吉隆縣則是尼泊爾與中國之間重要的邊境貿易樞紐。由於喜馬拉雅山脈地形陡峭，該地區的山洪和滑坡等自然災害往往會造成跨國界影響，波及邊境兩側的社區。
EN： The conjunction 'while' is used to contrast two related facts or situations occurring at the same time or within the same context.
中文： 連詞 'while' 用於對比在相同背景或時間下發生的兩種相關事實或情況（可譯為「而」或「然而」）。
Nepal reported heavy rainfall in the south, while northern regions experienced severe drought.
尼泊爾南部據報導有豪雨，而北部地區則遭遇嚴重乾旱。
EN： Passive voice constructions (e.g., 'were confirmed', 'were reported') are commonly used in news reports to focus on the actions or factual results rather than the agent who performed them.
中文： 被動語態結構（如 'were confirmed'、'were reported'）常用於新聞報導中，目的是將焦點放在動作或事實結果上，而非執行動作的主體。
Several survivors were rescued from the debris, while minor injuries were treated at the scene.
幾名倖存者從殘骸中獲救，而輕傷者則在現場接受了治療。
EN： Ellipsis (omission) of repeated words in parallel structures: When two clauses share the same verb or structure, the repeated elements (here, 'remained missing') are often omitted to avoid repetition, especially in news reporting.
中文： 並列結構中的省略（Ellipsis）：當兩個子句共用相同的動詞或結構時，後者常會省略重複的字詞（此處省略了 'remained missing'），使句子更為精煉，常見於新聞報導。
John ordered a coffee and Mary a tea.
約翰點了一杯咖啡，而瑪麗點了一杯茶。
EN： Noun clause as direct object after reporting verbs: 'That' introduces a content clause acting as the object of 'stated', reporting what the authorities communicated.
中文： 名詞子句作傳達動詞的直接受詞：'that' 引導內容子句，作為主要動詞 'stated'（聲明/表示）的受詞，用來報導當局發布的內容。
Officials reported that thousands of residents were affected by the storm.
官員報告指出有數千名居民受到了暴風雨的影響。
EN： Inversion with Prepositional Phrases: When a prepositional phrase expressing location, position, or category is placed at the beginning of a sentence for emphasis or textual cohesion, the subject and verb (especially 'be' verbs) are inverted (Verb + Subject).
中文： 介系詞片語倒裝：當表示位置、地點或範疇的介系詞片語為了強調或句子銜接而置於句首時，主詞與動詞（特別是 be 動詞）會發生倒裝（動詞 + 主詞）。
Among the survivors were two young children from the local village.
在倖存者之中，有兩名來自當地村莊的幼童。
EN： Ellipsis in Adjectival Constructions ('those unaccounted for'): The demonstrative pronoun 'those' is modified by an adjective/participial phrase where 'who were' is omitted (those who were unaccounted for = those unaccounted for).
中文： 形容詞結構中的省略（'those unaccounted for'）：指示代名詞 'those' 受形容詞/分詞片語修飾，其中省略了關係代名詞與動詞 'who were'（those who were unaccounted for 簡化為 those unaccounted for），意為「那些下落不明的人」。
All items unaccounted for must be reported to the manager immediately.
所有下落不明的物品都必須立即向經理報告。
EN： Reduced relative clause using a past participle: 'caused by the flood' is a shortened form of 'which was caused by the flood'. It acts as an adjective phrase modifying the noun phrase 'The physical destruction'.
中文： 過去分詞省略關係子句：『caused by the flood』是『which was caused by the flood』的簡化形式，作為形容詞片語，用來修飾前面的名詞『The physical destruction』（物質破壞）。
The damage caused by the storm took months to repair.
暴風雨造成的損害花了數月時間才修復完成。
EN： Subject-Verb Agreement with Abstract Nouns: 'destruction' is an uncountable abstract noun, so it takes the singular verb 'was'.
中文： 不可數抽象名詞的主詞與動詞一致性：『destruction』（破壞）為不可數抽象名詞，因此搭配單數動詞『was』。
The information provided during the seminar was very helpful.
研討會期間提供的資訊非常有幫助。
EN： Present Participle Clauses (-ing forms) can be used to show a result or consequence of the main clause action. Here, 'cutting off...' explains the outcome of the disaster destroying the roads and bridges.
中文： 現在分詞子句（-ing 形式）可用於表示主句動作所產生的結果或後果。在此處，『cutting off...』解釋了災害摧毀道路和橋樑後的結果。
Heavy snow blocked the main runway, delaying dozens of flights.
大雪封鎖了主跑道，導致數十個航班延誤。
EN： The phrasal verb 'cut off' means to block, disconnect, or isolate access to a place or person. In this sentence, 'access' is the direct object following the verb particle combination.
中文： 片語動詞『cut off』意思是阻斷、切斷或使某地/某人孤立。在本句中，『access』作為該動詞片語的直接受詞。
Rising floodwaters cut off power supplies to the entire city.
上漲的洪水切斷了整座城市的電力供應。
EN： The Passive Voice (be + past participle) is used when the focus is on the action or the receiver of the action rather than the agent. Here, 'were completely wiped out' emphasizes the destruction rather than what caused it.
中文： 被動語態（be 動詞 + 過去分詞）用於將焦點放在動作本身或受動者身上，而非執行者。在此句中，『were completely wiped out』強調的是毀滅的結果，而非發生的原因。
Several historical bridges were completely destroyed during the severe flood.
數座歷史悠久的橋樑在嚴重的洪水期間被徹底摧毀。
EN： A Present Participle Clause (V-ing) is used here to show result. It functions similarly to a relative clause like 'which removed...', providing extra information about the consequence of the main clause.
中文： 現在分詞子句（V-ing）在此處用來表示結果，功能類似於關係子句（如『which removed...』），為主要子句的結果提供額外補充說明。
The heavy snowfall blocked the main highway, causing massive traffic delays.
大雪封鎖了主要公路，導致嚴重的交通延誤。
EN： The Passive Voice in the Past Simple tense (was/were + past participle) is used when the action happened in the past and the focus is on the object receiving the action rather than who performed it.
中文： 過去簡單式的被動語態（was/were + 過去分詞）用於動作發生於過去，且重點在於承受動作的對象而非執行者。
The historic bridge was completely destroyed by the sudden flood.
那座歷史悠久的橋樑被突如其來的洪水完全摧毀了。
EN： Prepositional phrases starting with 'between' are often used as post-modifiers to define the spatial relationship or connection between two entities.
中文： 由 'between'（在……之間）引導的介系詞片語常用作後置修飾語，用來界定兩個主體之間的空間關係或連結。
The railway line between London and Paris runs through the Channel Tunnel.
連接倫敦與巴黎之間的鐵路線穿過英法海底隧道。
EN： Gyirong Port is a major land border crossing and trade corridor connecting Nepal and China (Tibet). Its destruction severely disrupts trans-Himalayan trade and disaster relief logistics between the two countries.
中文： 吉隆口岸是連接尼泊爾與中國（西藏）最重要的陸路邊境過境點及貿易通道之一。該口岸的摧毀嚴重影響了跨喜馬拉雅山脈的雙邊貿易與災害救援物流。
EN： The Present Perfect Tense (have/has + past participle) with 'never' is used to express that an action or experience has not occurred at any time up to the present moment.
中文： 現在完成式（have/has + 過去分詞）搭配副詞「never（從未）」，用來表達從過去到現在這個時間點為止，從未發生過的經驗或動作。
She has never visited a foreign country before.
她以前從未去過外國。
EN： In reporting clauses (e.g., 'said a senior official'), Subject-Verb Inversion can occur when the reporting verb ('said') precedes a long or complex subject noun phrase.
中文： 在引述句的主句中（例如 'said a senior official'），當主詞是由較長的名詞短語組成時，經常會將動詞（said）移至主詞前面，形成「動詞 + 主詞」的倒裝結構。
"This is a rare discovery," said the lead scientist.
「這是一個罕見的發現，」首席科學家說道。
EN： The Passive Voice (be + past participle) is used when the focus is on the action or the person/thing affected by it, rather than who performed the action. Here, 'were displaced' and 'were affected' emphasize the condition of the victims.
中文： 被動語態（be 動詞 + 過去分詞）用於強調受動作影響的人或事物，而非動作的執行者。句中的 'were displaced'（流離失所）與 'were affected'（受到影響）旨在突顯災民所受到的影響。
Thousands of families were evacuated from the city before the storm hit.
風暴來襲前，數千個家庭已從該城市撤離。
EN： The subordinating conjunction 'while' is used to link two contrasting or simultaneously occurring facts within a single sentence.
中文： 從屬連接詞 'while'（而／同時）用於連接同一個句子中具有對比效果或同時發生的兩個事實。
Some roads were completely blocked by snow, while others remained open to traffic.
有些道路被大雪完全封鎖，而其他道路則保持通行。
EN： Indirect speech or reporting clauses often use 'that' as a conjunction to introduce a noun clause functioning as the direct object of verbs like 'estimate', 'think', or 'believe'.
中文： 名詞子句作為賓語（Noun Clause as Object）：動詞（如 estimate、think、believe 等）後面常接由連接詞「that」引導的名詞子句，用來傳達估計、想法或報告的內容。
The report indicated that many families were left homeless after the storm.
報告指出，暴風雨過後許多家庭無家可歸。
EN： The phrase 'access to + noun' uses 'access' as an uncountable noun meaning 'the right or opportunity to use or enter something', followed by the preposition 'to'.
中文： 不可數名詞片語「access to + 名詞」：「access」在此作為不可數名詞，表示「使用或取得某物的權利或機會」，後面固定搭配介系詞「to」。
Residents in rural areas often lack access to modern healthcare.
偏遠地區的居民往往缺乏使用現代醫療服務的管道。
EN： A gerund phrase (verb + -ing) can act as the singular subject of a sentence. It takes a singular verb, such as 'has been'.
中文： 動名詞片語（動詞 + -ing）可作為句子的單數主詞。後續接單數動詞，例如「has been」。
Providing shelter for the homeless is our top priority.
為無家可歸者提供庇護所是我們的首要任務。
EN： The present perfect passive ('has/have been' + past participle) is used to show an action that happened in the past, but its result directly impacts the present situation.
中文： 現在完成被動態（has/have been + 過去分詞）用於表示過去發生的動作，且其結果對現在的狀況產生直接影響。
Many roads have been closed due to heavy snowfall.
許多道路因大雪而被封閉。
EN： The verb 'begin' can be followed by a gerund (-ing form) to indicate starting an activity. When accompanied by an adverb like 'immediately', it emphasizes the prompt initiation of the action.
中文： 動詞「begin」後面可以接動名詞（-ing 形式）來表示開始做某個動作。當搭配如「immediately」（立即）等副詞時，能強調該行動的迅速啟動。
The rescue team immediately started searching for missing passengers after the accident.
事故發生後，救援隊立即開始搜尋失蹤的乘客。
EN： The infinitive phrase 'to provide...' functions as an adverbial modifier of purpose, explaining the reason for 'coordinating efforts'.
中文： 不定詞片語「to provide...」（為了提供……）在此作為目的副詞修飾語，用來解釋「協調行動」（coordinating efforts）的目的。
Volunteers gathered at the center to distribute warm clothes to the homeless.
志工們聚集在中心，以發放禦寒衣物給無家可歸者。
EN： The phrasal verb 'put [something] at [amount]' is used to estimate a cost, value, age, or quantity.
中文： 動詞短語「put [something] at [amount]」用於估計費用、價值、年齡或數量，意思是「將（某事物）估計為（多少金額或數值）」。
Economists put the financial loss at over ten million dollars.
經濟學家將經濟損失估計為超過一千萬美元。
EN： The non-defining relative clause 'which is equivalent to...' provides additional explanation about the preceding monetary amount using the adjective 'equivalent' (meaning equal in value).
中文： 非限定關係子句「which is equivalent to...」用來對前方提到的金額補充說明，其中形容詞「equivalent」表示「相等的；等值的」。
He donated 5,000 euros, which is equivalent to nearly six thousand US dollars.
他捐贈了5,000歐元，這相當於將近6,000美國美元。
EN： Reported speech with 'that'-clause and modal verbs: When introducing indirect speech in the past tense (e.g., 'warned'), the reported clause uses modal verbs like 'could' to express future possibility from a past perspective.
中文： 間接引語與 that 子句及情態動詞：當主句動詞為過去式（如 warned）時，that 引導的賓語子句常使用情態動詞過去形（如 could）來表示從過去時間點來看的未來可能性。
Experts warned that the severe weather could delay the construction project.
專家警告，惡劣的天氣可能會延誤該施工計劃。
EN： Using 'as much as' for emphasis: The structure 'as much as' (or 'as many as' for countable nouns) is used before a numerical value to emphasize how large or surprisingly high the amount is.
中文： 使用「as much as」表示強調：「as much as」（不可數）或「as many as」（可數）放在數量之前，用來強調金額、數量之大或高得令人吃驚（意為「高達…」）。
The repair costs could run as much as ten thousand dollars.
維修費用可能高達一萬美元。
EN： The Present Perfect Tense ('have/has + past participle') is used here to describe an action that occurred at an unspecified time in the past and has present relevance or ongoing results.
中文： 現在完成式（have/has + 過去分詞）在此用於描述過去發生但時間不特定、且對現在仍具影響或相關性的動作。
Several international organizations have pledged financial support to help rebuild the affected communities.
數個國際組織已經承諾提供資金支持，以協助重建受災社區。
EN： The subject 'More than 20 countries' uses the quantifier 'more than' followed by a plural countable noun, requiring a plural verb ('have').
中文： 主詞「More than 20 countries」使用數量詞「more than」加上複數可數名詞，因此後續動詞須搭配複數動詞（have）。
More than 50 volunteers have joined the emergency response team since yesterday.
自昨天以來，已有超過 50 名志工加入緊急應變小組。
EN： In major international disasters, governments and relief agencies use formal pledges ('pledge aid') to commit specific dollar amounts or resources, which are then coordinated by international bodies such as the United Nations during disaster response.
中文： 在重大國際災害中，各國政府與救援機構會透過正式承諾（pledge aid）來指定捐助金額或資源，隨後由聯合國等國際組織統籌協調災難應變與援助工作。
EN： The adjective phrase 'vulnerable to + noun/gerund' is used to describe someone or something that is easily harmed, affected, or damaged by a specific hazard or condition.
中文： 形容詞片語「vulnerable to + 名詞/動名詞」意為「容易受到……傷害或影響的」，常用來描述某人、某物或某地區極易受特定災害或不良條件威脅。
Coastal cities are particularly vulnerable to rising sea levels.
沿海城市特別容易受到海平面上升的影響。
EN： Past participles can function as adjectives to modify nouns. Here, 'improved' modifies 'early-warning systems' to indicate systems that have been made better.
中文： 過去分詞可作為形容詞使用，用來修飾名詞。在此處，「improved」（經改進的）修飾「early-warning systems」（預警系統），表示該系統已被提升或完善。
We need improved infrastructure to handle the growing traffic.
我們需要改善後的基礎設施來應對日益增長的交通量。
EN： The Third Conditional is used to express hypothetical or imaginary situations in the past that did not happen, along with their imagined past results. Structure: 'If + past perfect (had + V3), ... modal verb + have + V3 (could/would/might have + V3)'.
中文： 第三條件句（與過去事實相反的假設）用於討論過去未曾發生的假想情況及其可能導致的過去結果。句型結構為：「If + 過去完成式（had + 動詞第三態），... 情態助動詞 + have + 動詞第三態（could/would/might have + 動詞第三態）」。
If they had checked the weather forecast, they could have avoided the storm.
如果他們當時有查看天氣預報，本來就能避開那場暴風雨。
EN： The Passive Voice with Modal Verbs in the Past (e.g., 'could have been saved') is used to express past possibility or ability regarding an action performed on the subject. Structure: 'modal + have + been + past participle'.
中文： 情態助動詞的過去被動語態（如 'could have been saved'）用於表達過去某事「本來有可能被進行」或「本來可以被完成」。結構為：「情態助動詞 + have + been + 過去分詞」。
The mistakes could have been prevented with more careful planning.
如果計畫得更周密，這些錯誤本來是可以被預防的。
重要單字附有 IPA 發音、定義、例句和互動式測驗。
在本文中： 冰河、冰川
在本文中： 災難性的、毀滅性的
在本文中： 摩擦力
在本文中： 毀滅性的、破壞力極大的
在本文中： 殘骸、碎片、瓦礫
在本文中： 下落不明的
在本文中： 水力發電的
在本文中： 迫使離開家園的、流離失所的
在本文中： 公共衛生、環境衛生設備
在本文中： 人道主義的、人道救援的
在本文中： 初步的、預備的
在本文中： 承諾、保證（給予援助等）
在本文中： 易受傷害的、脆弱的
片語包含類型標示、雙語定義、用法說明和例句。
A sudden and destructive flood that occurs within a very short time, usually caused by heavy rain or rapid ice melting.
山洪、暴漲的洪水
To destroy or remove completely.
徹底摧毀、消滅
To block or stop access to something; to isolate.
阻斷、切斷（交通或聯繫）
Material and logistical assistance provided for humanitarian purposes, typically in response to natural disasters or crises.
人道救援（援助）
A set of capacities needed to generate and disseminate timely and meaningful warning information to enable individuals and communities threatened by a hazard to prepare and act appropriately.
早期預警系統