EN： The past participle phrase 'associated with...' is used as an adjective phrase modifying the noun 'challenges'. It is a reduced relative clause, shortened from 'which are associated with...'.
中文： 過去分詞片語「associated with...」（與……相關）用作形容詞片語，修飾名詞「challenges」（挑戰）。這是一個簡化的關係子句，由「which are associated with...」縮減而來。
The costs associated with the project have exceeded our initial budget.
與該專案相關的費用已經超出了我們最初的預算。
EN： The infinitive 'to tackle' functions as an adverbial of purpose, explaining 'why' NASA selected the 37 American companies.
中文： 不定詞「to tackle」（去應對/解決）在此處充當目的狀語，解釋了美國國家航空暨太空總署選拔這 37 家美國公司的「目的」。
The government implemented new policies to combat inflation.
政府實施了新政策以打擊通貨膨脹。
EN： The reporting clause 'the agency announced on June 26' is placed at the end of the sentence as a parenthetical addition, which is a common journalistic style to attribute information without interrupting the flow of the main news.
中文： 報導子句「the agency announced on June 26」（該機構於 6 月 26 日宣布）被置於句末作為插入語。這是新聞寫作中常見的風格，能在不中斷主要新聞流暢度的情況下交代消息來源。
The new policy will take effect next month, the spokesperson confirmed on Tuesday.
發言人於週二證實，新政策將於下個月生效。
EN： The term 'the agency' is a common journalistic substitution for 'NASA' to avoid repetitive language in news writing. In the context of space exploration, 'the agency' almost universally refers to NASA in American media. Additionally, the mention of a 'permanent lunar base' refers to the broader, real-world international efforts (like the Artemis program) to transition from temporary exploration to sustainable human presence on the Moon.
中文： 「the agency」（該機構）是新聞寫作中常見的代稱，用來避免重複提及「NASA」（美國國家航空暨太空總署）。在美國媒體的太空探索報導中，「the agency」幾乎專指 NASA。此外，文中提到的「永久月球基地」與現實中（如阿提米絲計畫）將太空探索從「短期停留」轉型為「在月球上長期可持續駐留」的國際努力息息相關。
EN： The phrase 'gain access to' is a highly common collocated expression in formal and professional English, meaning to obtain the right, opportunity, or physical means to enter or use something. It is followed by a noun phrase introduced by the preposition 'to'.
中文： 片語「gain access to」是正式與專業英文中非常常見的搭配詞，意思是獲得進入或使用某物的權利、機會或實體管道。其後接由介係詞「to」引導的名詞片語。
Only authorized personnel can gain access to the secure server room.
只有授權人員才能進入安全伺服器房。
EN： The prepositional phrase 'without any direct cash expenditure' uses 'without' to express a condition of exclusion or exemption. 'Expenditure' is a formal term for the act of spending money, energy, or time, often used in corporate, governmental, or scientific contexts instead of the more common word 'spending'.
中文： 介係詞片語「without any direct cash expenditure」使用「without」來表示排除或豁免的條件。「Expenditure」是花費金錢、能量或時間的正式術語，在企業、政府或科學情境中經常被用來替代較為口語的「spending」。
The project was completed on schedule without any additional expenditure of public funds.
該專案在沒有任何額外公共資金支出的情況下按時完成。
EN： The use of 'including' introduces a non-restrictive list of examples that clarify the preceding noun phrase ('specialized facilities'). This structure allows the writer to provide concrete examples without cluttering the main clause, separated by commas.
中文： 使用「including」引導出一個非限制性的例子列表，用以說明前述的名詞片語（「specialized facilities」）。這種結構允許作者在不使主句顯得雜亂的情況下，用逗號隔開並提供具體的實例。
The resort offers various recreational activities, including hiking, kayaking, and horseback riding.
該度假村提供各式各樣的消遣活動，包括健行、獨木舟和騎馬。
EN： This sentence reflects the modern paradigm of public-private partnerships (PPPs) in space exploration. Rather than directly funding contractors with cash, NASA leverages its unique, multi-billion-dollar testing infrastructure (like thermal vacuum chambers that simulate the cold vacuum of space) as an in-kind contribution. This allows commercial space firms to validate their technologies while saving taxpayer money, a cornerstone of the Artemis program's cost-efficiency strategy.
中文： 這句話反映了現代太空探索中「公私合作夥伴關係」（PPPs）的新典範。美國國家航空暨太空總署（NASA）並非直接向承包商提供現金資助，而是利用其價值數十億美元、獨一無二的測試基礎設施（例如模擬太空寒冷真空環境的熱真空室）作為「實物貢獻」。這使商業太空公司能夠驗證其技術，同時節省納稅人的資金，這也是阿提米絲計畫成本效益策略的基石。
EN： The past participle phrase 'valued at...' acts as a reduced relative clause (which is valued at...) modifying the noun 'partnership'. It is set off by commas to provide non-essential, parenthetical information about the partnership's monetary value.
中文： 過去分詞片語「valued at...」（估值為……）在此作為簡化關係子句（which is valued at...），修飾名詞「partnership」。前後使用逗號隔開，用以提供關於該合作關係資金價值的非限定性、補充說明資訊。
The painting, valued at over ten million dollars, was stolen from the museum last night.
這幅估值超過一千萬美元的畫作昨晚從博物館被盜。
EN： The passive construction 'is designed to + infinitive' is used to express the purpose, intention, or objective behind the creation or implementation of a system, plan, or entity.
中文： 被動結構「is designed to + 不定詞」用於表示某個系統、計劃或實體被創建或實施背後的目的、意圖或宗旨。
This new software is designed to streamline the company's billing process.
這款新軟體旨在簡化公司的計費流程。
EN： The non-defining relative clause introduced by 'which' ('which remains targeted for early 2028') provides extra information about 'Artemis IV'. The verb 'remains' is followed by a past participle 'targeted' acting as an adjective, indicating a continuing state of planning.
中文： 由「which」引導的非限定關係子句（which remains targeted for early 2028）為「阿提米絲4號」提供了額外的補充資訊。動詞「remains」後接過去分詞「targeted」作為形容詞使用，表示持續處於被規劃的狀態。
The project, which remains scheduled for next spring, has received additional funding.
該項目仍計劃於明年春天進行，目前已獲得額外資金。
EN： The 'Artemis' program is a NASA-led endeavor to land humans, including the first woman and first person of color, back on the Moon. 'Artemis IV' specifically represents a key milestone aimed at establishing a long-term, sustainable presence on the lunar surface, heavily relying on public-private partnerships to share the immense financial and technological risks.
中文： 「阿提米絲」計劃是由美國國家航空暨太空總署（NASA）主導的太空探索計畫，旨在將人類（包括首位女性和首位有色人種）重新送上月球。「阿提米絲4號」則是該計劃中的關鍵里程碑，目標是在月球表面建立長期且可持續的人類活動基地。此計畫高度依賴公私部門的合作夥伴關係，以共同分擔龐大的資金與技術風險。
EN： The verb 'underscore' is a transitive verb meaning 'to emphasize' or 'to draw attention to'. It is commonly used in formal, academic, or journalistic contexts to highlight a key fact or reality.
中文： 動詞「underscore」是一個及物動詞，意為「強調」或「凸顯」。它常用於正式、學術或新聞語境中，用以強調某個關鍵事實或現實情況。
The recent report underscores the urgent need for global climate action.
最近的報告凸顯了全球氣候行動的緊迫需求。
EN： The word 'sheer' is used as an adjective before a noun to emphasize the size, degree, or amount of something, meaning 'complete' or 'utter'. In this context, 'sheer hostility' emphasizes the extreme degree of the harsh environment.
中文： 「sheer」用作名詞前的形容詞，用以強調某事物的尺寸、程度或數量，意為「完全的」或「極度的」。在此語境中，「sheer hostility」強調了環境惡劣程度之深。
We were amazed by the sheer scale of the project.
我們對該專案極大的規模感到驚嘆。
EN： The present participle phrase (v-ing) 'rendering...' is used here as an adverbial clause of result, indicating an automatic or logical consequence of the main clause's action. 'Render' in this context means 'to cause someone or something to be in a particular state' and is followed by an object and an object complement (adjective).
中文： 現在分詞短語（v-ing）「rendering...」在此用作結果狀語，表示主句動作所帶來的必然或邏輯上的結果。「render」在此語境中意為「使…成為某種狀態」，後接賓語與賓語補語（形容詞）。
The heavy snow blocked the main runway, rendering the airport temporarily unusable.
大雪阻塞了主要跑道，導致機場暫時無法使用。
EN： The compound adjective 'two-week-long' is formed by combining a number, a singular noun, and an adjective with hyphens. When a measurement or duration functions as a pre-nominal modifier (before a noun), the noun within the compound must remain singular (e.g., 'two-week', not 'two-weeks').
中文： 複合形容詞「two-week-long」是由數字、單數名詞和形容詞通過連字號組合而成。當測量值或持續時間作為名詞前修飾語（置於名詞前）時，複合詞中的名詞必須保持單數形式（例如「two-week」，而非「two-weeks」）。
The government launched a three-month-long investigation into the financial scandal.
政府對這起金融醜聞展開了為期三個月的調查。
EN： The lunar night lasts approximately 14 Earth days, followed by 14 Earth days of continuous sunlight. This extreme cycle presents one of the greatest engineering challenges for space exploration, particularly in the 'permanently shadowed regions' (PSRs) near the lunar poles, which never receive sunlight and are among the coldest places in the solar system.
中文： 月球的夜晚大約持續14個地球日，隨後是持續14個地球日的日光照射。這種極端的週期為太空探索帶來了最大的工程挑戰之一，特別是在月球兩極附近「永久陰影區」（PSRs），這些區域從未接收到陽光，是太陽系中最寒冷的地方之一。
EN： The non-defining relative clause introduced by ', which' is used to comment on the entire preceding clause ('Conventional wiring... has proven impractical') rather than a single noun. This is a common device in academic and formal writing to show cause, effect, or logical evaluation.
中文： 由「, which」引導的非限定關係子句，用於對前面整個子句（「在...表面進行傳統佈線已被證明是不切實際的」）進行評論或補充說明，而非僅修飾單一限定名詞。這在學術與正式寫作中非常常見，用以表示因果關係或邏輯評估。
The experiment failed to produce the expected results, which is precisely why we need to recalibrate our instruments.
該實驗未能產生預期結果，這正是為什麼我們需要重新校準儀器的原因。
EN： The structure 'which is precisely why...' uses the adverb 'precisely' to add strong emphasis to the reason ('why...') that explains the situation described in the main clause.
中文： 「which is precisely why...」結構中，副詞「precisely」（正是、確實）用來強烈強調後面引導的「why...」原因子句，藉此解釋主句中所描述的情況。
The region experiences frequent seismic activity, which is precisely why the buildings are constructed with flexible steel frames.
該地區地震活動頻繁，這正是為什麼這些建築物在建造時採用彈性鋼骨結構的原因。
EN： The present perfect tense 'has proven' (or 'has proved') is used here to describe a state or conclusion that has been established over time up to the present moment, emphasizing its current relevance.
中文： 現在完成式「has proven」（已被證明）在此用於描述一個隨著時間推移、直到目前為止已被確立的狀態或結論，強調其對現狀的關聯性與影響。
This innovative approach has proven highly effective in reducing carbon emissions over the past decade.
在過去十年中，這種創新方法已被證明在減少碳排放方面非常有效。
EN： The sentence highlights the extreme environmental challenges of lunar exploration. The 'abrasive dust' refers to lunar regolith, which consists of tiny, sharp, glass-like particles created by micrometeorite impacts. Because there is no wind or water to erode these particles, they remain highly abrasive and cling to surfaces due to electrostatic charges, posing a severe threat to mechanical seals, spacesuits, and conventional wiring. This has driven space agencies like NASA to seek non-contact or highly shielded technologies.
中文： 這句話凸顯了月球探測所面臨的極端環境挑戰。句中的「磨蝕性沙塵」（abrasive dust）指的是月球壤土（regolith），它由微隕石撞擊產生的微小、鋒利且像玻璃一樣的顆粒組成。由於月球上沒有風或水來侵蝕這些顆粒，它們保持著高度的磨蝕性，並因靜電而黏附在物體表面，對機械密封、太空衣和傳統電線造成嚴重威脅。這促使像美國國家航空暨太空總署（NASA）這樣的太空機構尋求非接觸式或高度屏蔽的技術。
EN： The phrase 'Were it not for...' is a formal, inverted conditional structure used to express what would happen if a specific situation or factor did not exist. It is equivalent to 'If it were not for...' and is used for hypothetical situations in the present or future (Second Conditional).
中文： 「Were it not for...」是一種正式且倒裝的條件句結構，用來表達若非某個特定情況或因素存在，將會產生何種後果。它等同於「If it were not for...」，用於表示與現在或未來事實相反的假設（第二類條件句）。
Were it not for your timely advice, we would not be able to complete the project on time.
若非你及時給予建議，我們將無法準時完成這項專案。
EN： The word 'sustained' is a past participle used as an adjective meaning 'continuing for an extended period without interruption.' It modifies the noun 'presence' to describe a long-term, continuous existence.
中文： 「sustained」在此處為過去分詞作形容詞使用，意思是「持續不間斷的」。它修飾名詞「presence」，用以描述長期且持續的存在狀態。
Sustained economic growth is essential for the development of the region.
持續的經濟增長對於該地區的發展至關重要。
EN： The adverb 'fundamentally' is used to modify the adjective 'unachievable,' emphasizing that the impossibility of the task goes to its very core or basic nature.
中文： 副詞「fundamentally」（根本上地）用來修飾形容詞「unachievable」（無法實現的），強調該任務的不可行性已深植於其本質或最基本的層面。
The two political parties have fundamentally different approaches to healthcare reform.
這兩個政黨在醫療改革上的方法有著根本上的不同。
EN： The sentence highlights the extreme difficulty of space exploration, specifically the Artemis program's goal of establishing a sustainable presence on the Moon. In scientific and engineering discourse, the term 'sustained presence' represents a major paradigm shift from the temporary visits of the Apollo era to permanent, long-term habitation, which requires unprecedented technological breakthroughs.
中文： 此句子凸顯了太空探索的極高難度，特別是阿提米絲計畫在月球上建立可持續生存基地的目標。在科學與工程論述中，「持續生存」（sustained presence）代表了從阿波羅時代的「短暫造訪」向「永久長期定居」的重大典範轉移，這需要前所未有的技術突破。
EN： The prepositional relative clause structure 'preposition + which' is used in formal English to connect a relative pronoun to its governing preposition, placing the preposition before 'which' rather than at the end of the clause.
中文： 「介係詞 + which」的關係子句結構常用於正式英文中。此結構將引導子句的介係詞置於關係代名詞 which 之前，而非置於子句的末尾，使句式更為嚴謹。
This is the fundamental principle upon which our entire philosophy is built.
這是我們整個哲學體系所構建於其上的基本原則。
EN： The adverb 'collectively' is used as a sentence modifier at the beginning of the sentence to indicate that the subjects are being considered as a whole group rather than individually.
中文： 副詞「collectively」（共同地、合起來）在此作為全句修飾語置於句首，用以表示主詞應被視為一個整體，而非個別獨立的個體。
EN： The transitive verb 'constitute' is used in formal contexts to mean 'to be the parts that form something' or 'to make up', serving as a more academic alternative to 'make up' or 'form'.
中文： 及物動詞「constitute」在正式語境中意為「構成」或「組成」，是比「make up」或「form」更具學術感與正式感的替代詞彙。
EN： The sentence highlights the modern aerospace industry's reliance on a 'supply chain' of private commercial partners rather than NASA building everything in-house. This reflects a major cultural and operational shift in American space exploration (the transition to public-private partnerships like the Artemis program).
中文： 此句子強調了現代航太產業對私人商業合作夥伴「供應鏈」的依賴，而非由美國國家航空暨太空總署（NASA）完全自主建造。這反映了美國太空探索的一大文化與營運轉變（即轉向如阿提米絲計畫等公私協作夥伴關係）。
EN： Locative Inversion (Prepositional Phrase Inversion): When a prepositional phrase of place or order (e.g., 'Among...') is placed at the beginning of a sentence for emphasis or cohesion, the subject and the verb 'be' are inverted. Here, 'Among the pressing technical problems...' is the fronted prepositional phrase, 'is' is the verb, and 'the challenge...' is the actual plural/singular subject.
中文： 地方副詞/介系詞片語倒裝：當表示地點或順序的介系詞片語（如 'Among...'）置於句首以示強調或使上下文銜接更流暢時，主詞與動詞（通常為 be 動詞）會進行倒裝。在本句中，'Among the pressing technical problems...' 是前置的介系詞片語，'is' 是動詞，而 'the challenge...' 才是真正的主詞。
Among the candidates interviewed yesterday was a highly qualified software engineer.
在昨天接受面試的候選人中，有一位非常優秀的軟體工程師。
EN： Preposition + Pronoun + Gerund (without it disintegrating): The preposition 'without' is followed by a gerund phrase. When the gerund ('disintegrating') has its own subject that is different from the main subject of the clause, this subject is placed immediately before the gerund as an objective pronoun ('it') or a possessive pronoun ('its').
中文： 介系詞 + 代名詞 + 動名詞（without it disintegrating）：介系詞 'without' 後面接動名詞片語。當動名詞（'disintegrating'）有其專屬的主詞，且該主詞與子句的主詞不同時，此主詞會緊接在動名詞之前，以受格代名詞（'it'）或所有格代名詞（'its'）的形式呈現。
They managed to complete the project on time without us helping them.
在我們沒有協助他們的情況下，他們成功按時完成了該專案。
EN： Noun Phrase in Apposition with a Participial Modifier: 'a procedure requiring...' is an appositive noun phrase that renaming or explaining the entire preceding concept (returning hardware safely). The noun 'procedure' is modified by the active present participle phrase 'requiring...', which functions like a reduced relative clause ('which requires...').
中文： 同位語名詞片語與分詞修飾語：'a procedure requiring...' 是一個同位語名詞片語，用以重新定義或解釋前述的整個概念（安全返回硬體）。名詞 'procedure' 受到主動現在分詞片語 'requiring...' 的修飾，其功能相當於簡化後的關係子句（'which requires...'）。
The team decided to redesign the engine, a decision leading to a significant increase in efficiency.
團隊決定重新設計引擎，這一決定導致了效率的顯著提升。
EN： Inverted conditional clause with 'should'. In formal English, 'should' can be placed at the beginning of a conditional clause to replace 'if' (e.g., 'If any critical component should fail...' becomes 'Should any critical component fail...'). This structure expresses a hypothetical or less likely future scenario and elevates the register to highly formal.
中文： 使用「should」的倒裝條件句。在正式英語中，可以將「should」置於條件子句的句首以取代「if」（例如：「If any critical component should fail...」變成「Should any critical component fail...」）。此結構用以表達假設性或發生機率較低的未來情境，並使語體顯得極為正式。
Should you require any further assistance, please do not hesitate to contact our support team.
如果您需要任何進一步的協助，請隨時與我們的支援團隊聯繫。
EN： The verb 'materialize' is used here in its intransitive sense meaning 'to happen', 'to appear', or 'to become real/actual'. In technical and project management contexts, it often refers to components, plans, or expected outcomes successfully coming into existence or being delivered.
中文： 動詞「materialize」在此處作不及物動詞使用，意思是「發生」、「出現」或「成為現實/具體化」。在技術與專案管理語境中，它通常指組件、計劃或預期成果成功問世或得以交付。
The funding promised by the investors failed to materialize, forcing the startup to halt operations.
投資人承諾的資金未能到位（實現），迫使這家新創公司停止營運。
EN： The modal verb 'could' combined with a base verb ('could face') is used to express a strong possibility or potential consequence in the future, contingent upon the condition introduced in the preceding clause.
中文： 情態動詞「could」結合動詞原型（「could face」）用於表示未來極有可能發生的情況或潛在後果，這取決於前述子句中所引入的條件是否成立。
Without proper maintenance, the bridge could face severe structural issues within a decade.
若無妥善維護，這座橋樑在十年內可能會面臨嚴重的結構問題。
EN： The 'Artemis program' is a NASA-led human spaceflight program with the primary goal of landing the next humans on the Moon, specifically at the lunar south pole region. The mention of 'substantial delays' reflects the high-stakes, tightly coordinated nature of modern aerospace supply chains, where a delay in a single component from a private contractor can stall a multi-billion dollar international endeavor.
中文： 「阿提米絲計畫」是一項由美國國家航空暨太空總署（NASA）領導的人類太空飛行計畫，首要目標是將下一批人類送上月球，特別是月球南極地區。文中提到「重大延誤」，反映出航太供應鏈環環相扣、高風險的特質，私營承包商單一組件的延誤就可能導致數十億美元的國際合作計畫停擺。
EN： Negative Inversion with 'Not only... but also': When 'not only' is placed at the beginning of a sentence for emphasis, it triggers subject-auxiliary inversion. The auxiliary verb (does/do/did/is/are/can/etc.) is placed before the subject, while the second clause (introduced by 'but also') maintains normal word order.
中文： 「Not only... but also」（不僅……而且……）的否定倒裝：當「not only」置於句首以示強調時，會引起主詞與助動詞倒裝。助動詞（如 does/do/did/is/are/can 等）須置於主詞之前，而由「but also」引導的第二個子句則保持正常語序。
Not only did she complete the project ahead of schedule, but she also stayed within the budget.
她不僅提前完成了專案，而且還控制在預算之內。
EN： Appositive 'that' clause: The noun 'recognition' is followed by a noun clause starting with 'that' which explains the content of the recognition. Unlike relative clauses, 'that' here is a conjunction and does not play a grammatical role (like subject or object) within the clause itself.
中文： 同位語「that」子句：名詞「recognition」（體認/認同）後方接由「that」引導的名詞子句，用以解釋該體認的具體內容。與關係子句不同，此處的「that」是連接詞，在子句內部不充當任何語法角色（如主詞或受詞）。
EN： Gerund as Object of Preposition: In the phrase 'of establishing a lunar base', the verb 'establish' is in the gerund form ('establishing') because it serves as the object of the preposition 'of'. The gerund retains its transitive nature, taking 'a lunar base' as its direct object.
中文： 動名詞作介係詞受詞：在「of establishing a lunar base」片語中，動詞「establish」使用動名詞形式（establishing），因為它擔任介係詞「of」的受詞。該動名詞保留了其及物動詞的特性，以「a lunar base」作為其直接受詞。
重要單字附有 IPA 發音、定義、例句和互動式測驗。
在本文中： 艱巨的、難以克服的
在本文中： 支出、花費
在本文中： 惡劣、敵意（此處指環境的嚴酷性）
在本文中： 暴跌、急劇下降
在本文中： 具磨蝕力的、粗糙的
在本文中： 切實可行的、可望成功的
在本文中： 組成、構成
在本文中： 解體、碎裂
在本文中： 務實的、重實效的
在本文中： 多層面的、多軌道的
片語包含類型標示、雙語定義、用法說明和例句。
The movement of spacecraft or objects from outer space into and through the gases of a planet's atmosphere.
重返大氣層
If it had not been for; used to say that something would have happened if a particular person or thing had not prevented it.
若非、要不是因為
The sequence of processes involved in the production and distribution of a commodity.
供應鏈
To not happen or appear as expected or planned.
未能實現、未能如期出現