EN： The past participle phrase 'conducted by...' acts as an adjectival modifier (reduced relative clause) modifying the noun phrase 'A landmark study'. It is equivalent to 'which was conducted by...'.
中文： 过去分词短语「conducted by...」（由……进行）作为形容词性修饰语（简化关系从句），修饰名词短语「A landmark study」（一项里程碑式研究）。这相当于「which was conducted by...」。
The report published by the research team received global attention.
该研究团队发表的报告引起了全球关注。
EN： The present perfect tense ('has established') is used to describe an action that occurred at an unspecified time in the past but has significant relevance or results in the present.
中文： 现在完成时（「has established」）用于描述在过去不特定时间发生、但对现在具有重要关联或结果的动作。
Scientists have discovered a new method to purify contaminated water.
科学家们已经发现了一种净化受污染水源的新方法。
EN： The correlative structure 'a connection between A and B' is used to link two distinct elements (prenatal exposure and subsequent development) to show their relationship.
中文： 相关结构「a connection between A and B」（A 与 B 之间的关联）用于连接两个不同的元素（产前暴露与随后的发展），以显示它们之间的关系。
There is a clear link between sleep deprivation and cognitive decline.
睡眠不足与认知能力下降之间存在着明确的联系。
EN： The term 'forever chemicals' is a popular, non-scientific designation for PFAS (per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances), highlighting their extreme persistence in the human body and the environment. This term has gained significant traction in Western public health discourse and media to emphasize environmental risks.
中文： 「forever chemicals」（永生化學物質）是 PFAS（全氟和多氟烷基物質）的通俗非科學名稱，強調它們在人體和環境中極難降解的特性。這個詞在西方公共衛生討論和媒體中被廣泛使用，用以強調環境健康風險。
EN： The structure 'be likely to + verb' is used to express probability. When modified by 'significantly more', it indicates a much higher statistical probability of an event occurring. In this sentence, 'were significantly more likely to have...' compares the probability between two groups.
中文： 结构「be likely to + 动词」用于表示可能性。当被「significantly more」修饰时，表示某事件发生的统计概率显著提高。在本句中，「were significantly more likely to have...」比较了两组对象之间的可能性差异。
Patients who skip breakfast are significantly more likely to develop metabolic issues over time.
不吃早餐的患者随着时间推移，发展出代谢问题的可能性显著提高。
EN： The relative clause 'who later developed PMOS...' is an adjective clause modifying the noun 'daughters'. The relative pronoun 'who' acts as the subject of the relative clause, and the adverb 'later' indicates a subsequent development in the timeline.
中文： 关系从句「who later developed PMOS...」是一个形容词从句，用来修饰名词「daughters」（女儿）。关系代词「who」在关系从句中担任主语，而副词「later」则表示在时间轴上随后发生的发展。
The researchers tracked children who later showed exceptional talent in mathematics.
研究人员追踪了后来在数学方面展现出非凡天赋的孩童。
EN： The prepositional phrase 'by their late teenage years' uses 'by' to mean 'not later than' or 'at some point before'. It establishes a temporal limit or deadline by which the development of the condition occurred.
中文： 介词短语「by their late teenage years」中的「by」表示「不迟于」或「在...之前某个时间点」。它设定了一个时间界限，即在那个年龄段晚期或之前，该症状已经发展出来。
Most individuals establish their core career goals by their late twenties.
大多数人在二十多岁晚期之前就会确立他们的核心职业目标。
EN： The term 'PFAS' (per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances) refers to a group of synthetic chemicals widely used in consumer products since the 1940s, often called 'forever chemicals' because they do not break down in the environment or the human body. This study highlights a growing public health concern in Western societies regarding environmental toxins and their multi-generational endocrine-disrupting effects, which has sparked intense regulatory debates in both the US and Europe.
中文： 「PFAS」（全氟和多氟烷基物質）是指自 1940 年代以來廣泛用於消費品的一組合成化學物質，因其在環境或人體中無法分解而常被稱為「永久化學物」。這項研究凸顯了西方社會對於環境毒素及其跨世代內分泌干擾效應日益增長的公共衛生擔憂，這在美歐等地引發了激烈的監管政策辯論。
EN： The past participle phrase 'formerly referred to as...' functions as a non-restrictive appositive modifier, providing additional historical or alternative naming information about the subject 'PMOS' without restricting its identity.
中文： 过去分词短语「formerly referred to as...」（先前被称为...）在此作为非限定性同位语修饰语，用以提供关于主语「PMOS」的历史名称或替代名称之额外信息，而不限制其主语本身的身份。
The country, formerly referred to as Burma, is now officially known as Myanmar.
这个国家先前被称为缅甸，现在官方名称为缅甸（Myanmar）。
EN： The passive construction 'is estimated to + infinitive' is used to report beliefs, estimates, or calculations objectively, especially when the exact agent of the estimation is general or unimportant.
中文： 被动结构「is estimated to + 不定式」用于客观地报道信念、估计或计算，特别是当估计的具体主体是泛指或不重要时。
The ancient temple is estimated to be over two thousand years old.
这座古老的神庙估计已有两千多年的历史。
EN： The linking verb 'remain' is followed by a past participle ('undiagnosed') functioning as a subject complement, describing a continuing state or condition of the subject.
中文： 系动词「remain」后面接过去分词（如「undiagnosed」）作为主语补语，用以描述主语持续处于某种状态或情况。
Despite the investigation, many questions remain unanswered.
尽管进行了调查，许多问题仍然悬而未决。
EN： The transition from 'polycystic ovary syndrome' (PCOS) to 'polyendocrine metabolic ovarian syndrome' (PMOS) reflects an ongoing shift in the medical community to more accurately describe the condition. Rather than focusing solely on ovarian cysts (which are not always present), the new terminology emphasizes the broader endocrine and metabolic nature of the syndrome, highlighting how medical language evolves with scientific understanding.
中文： 從「多囊卵巢綜合症」（PCOS）過渡到「多囊內分泌代謝卵巢綜合症」（PMOS），反映了醫學界為了更準確描述該疾病而進行的持續變革。新術語不再僅僅關注卵巢囊腫（這並非總是出現），而是強調該綜合症更廣泛的內分泌和代謝本質，突顯了醫學語言如何隨著科學認識的深入而演變。
EN： The conjunction 'though' is used to introduce a subordinate clause that concedes a point, meaning 'despite the fact that' or 'although'. In formal and academic writing, it is often used to balance a strong claim with a necessary qualification or limitation.
中文： 连接词「though」用于引导让步状语从句，表示「尽管」或「虽然」。在正式与学术写作中，它常用于在提出强力主张后，加上必要的限制或保留态度，以维持论述的客观性。
The results of the experiment are promising, though the researchers admit that the sample size was relatively small.
实验结果令人期待，尽管研究人员承认样本数相对较小。
EN： The modal verb 'may' combined with the base verb 'constitute' expresses tentative possibility in academic register. 'Constitute' is a formal synonym for 'be' or 'make up', used here to link a cause (chemical exposure) to an effect (primary driver) without asserting absolute certainty.
中文： 情态动词「may」结合动词原形「constitute」在学术语体中表达「温和的推测或可能性」。「constitute」是「是」或「构成」的正式同义词，在此用于将原因（化学物质暴露）与结果（主要诱因）连接起来，同时避免过于绝对的断言。
These newly discovered documents may constitute the most important evidence in the case.
这些新发现的文件可能构成该案最重要的证据。
EN： The passive construction 'is warranted' is highly common in academic and professional English. 'Warrant' as a transitive verb means 'to justify or make necessary'. Using the passive voice ('is warranted') shifts the focus to the action (investigation) rather than who should perform it.
中文： 被动结构「is warranted」在学术与专业英语中极为常见。及物动词「warrant」意为「使…显得合理或有必要」。使用被动语态（is warranted）能将焦点转移到动作（进一步调查）本身，而非执行该动作的主体。
Given the sudden drop in sales, immediate corrective action is warranted.
鉴于销售额骤降，采取即时的纠正措施是有必要的。
EN： The phrase 'peer-reviewed paper' refers to a cornerstone of modern scientific integrity. Before a study is published in a reputable journal, it must be evaluated by independent experts (peers) in the same field to ensure its methodology, data, and conclusions are robust. This term highlights the high credibility of the study mentioned in the text.
中文： 「peer-reviewed paper」（經同儕審查的論文）指的是現代科學誠信的基石。在研究發表於信譽良好的期刊之前，必須接受同一領域獨立專家（同儕）的評估，以確保其研究方法、數據和結論的嚴謹性。這個詞強調了文中提到的研究具有極高的公信力。
EN： The phrasal verb 'build upon' (or 'build on') means to use something as a basis for further development. It is commonly used in academic and professional contexts to describe how new research, ideas, or systems expand on existing foundations.
中文： 短语动词「build upon」（或「build on」）意为「以……为基础」、「建立在……之上」。在学术和专业语境中，常用来描述新的研究、想法或系统如何拓展既有的基础。
Our new marketing strategy builds upon the success of last year's campaign.
我们的新营销策略是建立在去年活动成功的基础之上。
EN： The past perfect tense ('had already linked') is used here to indicate an action that was completed before another action in the past (the publication or conduct of 'this study'). It emphasizes the chronological sequence of scientific discoveries.
中文： 此处使用过去完成时（「had already linked」）来表示在过去另一个动作（「这项研究」的发表或进行）之前就已经完成的动作。它强调了科学发现的时间先后顺序。
By the time the new policy was announced, several studies had already linked the chemical to health risks.
在新政策宣布之前，已有几项研究将该化学物质与健康风险联系在一起。
EN： The relative pronoun 'that' introduces a restrictive relative clause ('that had already linked...') modifying the noun 'research'. It specifies which research is being referred to, making it essential to the meaning of the sentence.
中文： 关系代词「that」引导限定性关系从句（「that had already linked...」），用以修饰名词「research」（研究）。它明确指出了所指的是哪一项研究，对句意而言至关重要。
The company adopted a technology that had already proven effective in Europe.
该公司采用了一项在欧洲已被证明有效的技术。
EN： Negative Inversion: When negative adverbs or adverbial phrases (such as 'never before', 'rarely', 'seldom', 'hardly') are placed at the beginning of a sentence for emphasis, the subject and the auxiliary verb are inverted (auxiliary verb + subject + main verb).
中文： 否定倒装：当否定副词或副词短语（如 'never before'、'rarely'、'seldom'、'hardly'）放在句首以示强调时，主语与助动词的位置需要倒装（助动词 + 主语 + 主要动词）。
Never before had she witnessed such an extraordinary natural phenomenon.
在此之前，她从未见过如此非凡的自然现象。
EN： Noun Clause as Object: The wh-clause 'how prenatal exposure might contribute to the onset of PMOS in later life' acts as the direct object of the transitive verb 'examined'. The word order within the noun clause remains statement order (subject + verb), not question order.
中文： 名词从句作宾语：由 wh- 引导的从句 'how prenatal exposure might contribute to the onset of PMOS in later life' 作为及物动词 'examined' 的直接宾语。名词从句内部的语序保持陈述句语序（主语 + 动词），而非疑问句语序。
The committee discussed how the new policy would affect local businesses.
委员会讨论了新政策将如何影响当地企业。
EN： Collocation 'contribute to': The phrasal verb 'contribute to' means to help to cause an event or situation. Here, 'to' is a preposition, so it must be followed by a noun, pronoun, or gerund (in this case, the noun phrase 'the onset of PMOS').
中文： 固定搭配 'contribute to'：短语动词 'contribute to' 意为「促成、导致」某个事件或情况。这里的 'to' 是介词，因此后面必须接名词、代词或动名词（在此句中为名词短语 'the onset of PMOS'）。
Stress can significantly contribute to high blood pressure.
压力可能会显著导致高血压。
EN： The present perfect tense ('have argued') is used here to describe an action that began in the past and continues to have relevance, validity, or impact in the present. In academic and journalistic contexts, it introduces a current stance or ongoing debate.
中文： 现在完成时（have argued）在此处用于描述一个始于过去且在现在仍具备关联性、有效性或影响力的动作。在学术与新闻语境中，它常用于引入当前的立场或持续进行中的讨论。
Researchers have argued that early intervention is key to successful treatment.
研究人员主张，早期干预是成功治疗的关键。
EN： The noun clause introduced by 'that' functions as the direct object of the reporting verb 'argued'. It allows the writer to report a belief, claim, or fact indirectly.
中文： 由「that」引导的名词从句作为转述动词「argued」的直接宾语。它使作者能够间接地陈述某个信念、主张或事实。
The committee announced that the project would receive additional funding.
委员会宣布该项目将获得额外资金。
EN： The classifier phrase 'a piece of' is used with the uncountable noun 'evidence' to make it countable. 'Crucial' acts as an attributive adjective modifying 'piece'.
中文： 量词短语「a piece of」与不可数名词「evidence」连用，使其可数。形容词「crucial」作定语修饰「piece」。
The detective found a crucial piece of evidence hidden in the basement.
侦探在地下室发现了一件隐藏的关键证据。
EN： In Western scientific and public policy discourse, 'public health advocates' play a critical role in bridging the gap between academic research and government regulation. They often use scientific findings to lobby for stricter environmental laws, such as regulating synthetic chemicals like PFAS.
中文： 在西方科學與公共政策論述中，「公共衛生倡導者」在填補學術研究與政府監管之間的鴻溝方面扮演著關鍵角色。他們經常利用科學發現來遊說制定更嚴格的環境法規，例如管制像 PFAS 這樣的合成化學物質。
EN： Apposition is a grammatical relation where a noun phrase is placed next to another noun phrase to identify or explain it. In this sentence, 'a senior scientist with the Environmental Working Group...' is an appositive phrase that provides background information about the subject 'Tasha Stoiber'.
中文： 同位语（Apposition）是一种语法关系，将一个名词短语置于另一个名词短语旁边，用以说明或解释它。在本句中，「a senior scientist with the Environmental Working Group...」是一个同位语短语，用来提供主语「塔莎·斯托伊伯」的背景信息。
Dr. Aris, a leading expert in marine biology, delivered the keynote address.
海洋生物学领域的顶尖专家阿里斯博士发表了主题演讲。
EN： Non-defining relative clauses (introduced by 'who' or 'which' and set off by commas) provide extra, non-essential information about a noun. Here, 'who reviewed the study independently' adds detail about Tasha Stoiber but is not required to identify her.
中文： 非限制性关系从句（由 'who' 或 'which' 引导并用逗号隔开）提供关于名词的额外、非必要的信息。在这里，「who reviewed the study independently」增加了关于塔莎·斯托伊伯的细节，但并非识别她所必需的信息。
My brother, who lives in New York, is coming to visit next week.
我那住在纽约的哥哥下周要来拜访。
EN： The present participle phrase 'documenting specific harms...' acts as an adjective modifying the noun phrase 'a larger body of evidence'. It is a reduced relative clause, equivalent to 'which documents specific harms...'.
中文： 现在分词短语「documenting specific harms...」充当形容词，修饰名词短语「a larger body of evidence」。这是一个简化的关系从句，相当于「which documents specific harms...」。
The government released a report outlining the new economic policies.
政府发布了一份概述新经济政策的报告。
EN： The mention of the 'Environmental Working Group' (EWG) reflects the prominent role of non-profit advocacy and research organizations in US environmental policy and public health. In the US, such independent groups often review scientific literature and lobby for stricter regulations on synthetic chemicals like PFAS, bridging the gap between academic science and public awareness.
中文： 提及「環境工作小組」（EWG）反映了非營利倡議與研究組織在美國環境政策和公共衛生中所扮演的重要角色。在美國，這類獨立團體經常審查科學文獻，並遊說政府對 PFAS 等合成化學物質實施更嚴格的監管，從而搭起學術科學與大眾意識之間的橋樑。
EN： The verb 'comprise' means 'to consist of' or 'to be made up of'. Unlike 'compose', which is typically used in the passive voice ('is composed of'), 'comprise' is used in the active voice to list the constituent parts of a whole. It does not require the preposition 'of' when used actively.
中文： 动词「comprise」意为「包含」或「由……组成」。与通常用于被动语态的「compose」（is composed of）不同，「comprise」在主动语态中直接接其组成部分，表示整体包含哪些部分，且主动用法时后面不需接介词「of」。
The collection comprises over three hundred rare manuscripts from the medieval period.
该收藏包含三百多份中世纪时期的珍贵手稿。
EN： The phrase 'most frequently utilized...' is a reduced relative clause (or participle clause) modifying 'synthetic compounds'. It is shortened from 'which are most frequently utilized...'. The past participle 'utilized' is used because the compounds receive the action of being used.
中文： 短语「most frequently utilized...」是一个修饰「synthetic compounds」（合成化合物）的简化关系从句（分词从句），由「which are most frequently utilized...」简化而来。此处使用过去分词「utilized」是因为化合物是被动地被「利用」。
The techniques, originally developed in Japan, are now widely used worldwide.
这些最初在日本开发的技术，现在已在世界各地被广泛采用。
EN： The suffix '-resistant' is combined with nouns (water, stain, grease) to form adjectives meaning 'able to resist' or 'proof against' the specified substance. This is a highly productive pattern in technical and commercial English.
中文： 后缀「-resistant」与名词（water、stain、grease）结合形成形容词，表示「能够抵抗」或「防……」特定物质。这在技术和商业英语中是一种非常常见且多产的构词模式。
The new smartphone features a scratch-resistant screen and heat-resistant casing.
这款新智能手机配备了防刮屏幕和耐热外壳。
EN： PFAS (per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances) are often referred to as 'forever chemicals' in public discourse because they do not break down in the environment or the human body. The suffix '-resistant' highlighted in the sentence reflects the primary commercial appeal of these chemicals, which has led to their widespread use in consumer goods like non-stick cookware, water-repellent clothing, and stain-resistant carpets, despite growing environmental and health concerns.
中文： PFAS（全氟和多氟烷基物質）在公眾輿論中常被稱為「永久化學物」，因為它們在環境或人體中無法被分解。句子中強調的「-resistant」（防護/抵抗）字尾，反映了這些化學物質在商業上的主要吸引力，這導致它們被廣泛應用於不沾鍋、防潑水衣物和防污地毯等消費品中，儘管人們對其環境和健康危害的擔憂日益增加。
EN： The phrase 'Were it not for...' is a formal, inverted conditional structure used to express a hypothetical situation in the present or general time (equivalent to 'If it were not for...'). It indicates that the current situation depends entirely on the noun phrase that follows.
中文： 「Were it not for...」是一种正式且倒装的条件句结构，用于表示与现在或一般事实相反的假设（相当于「If it were not for...」）。它表示目前的状况完全取决于其后接的名词短语。
Were it not for his timely advice, we might make a terrible mistake.
若非他及时提出建议，我们可能会犯下严重的错误。
EN： The main clause uses 'might never have + past participle' to express a hypothetical past possibility or consequence that did not actually happen, fitting into a mixed conditional context where a past result is linked to a general/present condition.
中文： 主句使用「might never have + 过去分词」来表示过去可能发生但实际上并未发生的假设性结果，适用于混合条件句的语境中，将过去的结果与一般性/现在的条件连接起来。
Without your financial support, the project might never have been completed.
若没有你的资金支持，这个项目可能永远无法完成。
EN： The sentence discusses the environmental persistence of PFAS, often referred to as 'forever chemicals' in public health and environmental science. The formal register of the sentence ('Were it not for...', 'permeated... so thoroughly') reflects the serious, academic, and regulatory tone typical of high-level scientific journalism and policy debates in English-speaking countries.
中文： 本句討論了 PFAS（在公共衛生與環境科學中常被稱為「永久化學物」）在環境中的持久性。句子所使用的正式語體（如「Were it not for...」、「permeated... so thoroughly」）反映了英語國家中高階科學新聞和政策辯論中典型、嚴肅且具學術性的語調。
EN： The present perfect tense ('has linked') is used here to describe an action that started in the past and has strong relevance or continuing effects in the present, establishing a foundation of accepted scientific knowledge.
中文： 现在完成时（has linked）在此用于描述始于过去且对现在有强烈关联或持续影响的动作，借此建立已获公认的科学知识基础。
Recent studies have linked high sugar consumption to cardiovascular diseases.
最近的研究已将高糖摄入与心血管疾病联系起来。
EN： The present participle clause ('raising...') acts as an adverbial clause of result, showing an immediate consequence of the action described in the main clause. It functions similarly to ', which raises...'.
中文： 现在分词引导的从句（raising...）在此作为表示结果的状语从句，展现主句所述动作的直接后果。其功能类似于「, which raises...」。
The factory closed down, leaving hundreds of people unemployed.
工厂倒闭了，导致数百人失业。
EN： The past participle 'compromised' is used as an adjective meaning 'weakened or damaged'. It is commonly used in medical and scientific contexts to describe systems (like the immune system) that are not functioning at full capacity.
中文： 过去分词「compromised」在此用作形容词，意为「受损的、减弱的」。在医学与科学语境中，常用于描述功能未完全发挥的系统（如免疫系统）。
Patients with compromised immune systems should avoid crowded places.
免疫系统受损的患者应避免前往拥挤的场所。
EN： In Western public health discourse, the regulation of synthetic chemicals like PFAS (often called 'forever chemicals' because they do not break down in the environment) is a highly debated topic. The phrase 'regulatory oversight' refers to the supervision by government bodies (such as the EPA in the US) which environmental advocates argue has been historically insufficient due to industry lobbying.
中文： 在西方公共衛生論述中，針對像 PFAS 這樣的合成化學物質（因其在環境中無法分解而常被稱為「永久化學物」）的監管是一個高度爭議的話題。句中的「regulatory oversight」（監管審查）指的是政府機構（如美國環保署 EPA）的監督，環保倡議人士認為，由於工業界的遊說，歷史上的監管力道一直嚴重不足。
重要单词附有 IPA 发音、定义、例句和互动式测验。
在本文中： 具有里程碑意义的、重大的
在本文中： 孕期的、产前的
在本文中： 随后的、接续发生的
在本文中： 偏高的、升高的
在本文中： 构成、组成
在本文中： 有必要的、合理的
在本文中： 干扰、扰乱
在本文中： 异常、畸形
在本文中： 渗透、充斥于
在本文中： 受损的、受损害的
在本文中： 监管、监督
片语包含类型标示、双语定义、用法说明和例句。
A popular term for PFAS (per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances), synthetic chemicals that do not break down in the environment or the human body.
永久性化学物质
An academic article that has been evaluated by other experts in the same field before publication to ensure its quality and scientific integrity.
经同行评审的论文
To use something as a basis or foundation for further development or research.
以……为基础发展、建立在……之上
If it had not been for; used to show that something is the only reason why something else did not happen or is not true.
若非因为、要不是有……