Nuclear Batteries and Laser Power: NASA Picks 37 Companies to Build Moon Base Tools
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EN: The past participle phrase 'associated with...' is used as an adjective phrase modifying the noun 'challenges'. It is a reduced relative clause, shortened from 'which are associated with...'.
The costs associated with the project have exceeded our initial budget.
EN: The infinitive 'to tackle' functions as an adverbial of purpose, explaining 'why' NASA selected the 37 American companies.
The government implemented new policies to combat inflation.
EN: The reporting clause 'the agency announced on June 26' is placed at the end of the sentence as a parenthetical addition, which is a common journalistic style to attribute information without interrupting the flow of the main news.
The new policy will take effect next month, the spokesperson confirmed on Tuesday.
EN: The term 'the agency' is a common journalistic substitution for 'NASA' to avoid repetitive language in news writing. In the context of space exploration, 'the agency' almost universally refers to NASA in American media. Additionally, the mention of a 'permanent lunar base' refers to the broader, real-world international efforts (like the Artemis program) to transition from temporary exploration to sustainable human presence on the Moon.
EN: The phrase 'gain access to' is a highly common collocated expression in formal and professional English, meaning to obtain the right, opportunity, or physical means to enter or use something. It is followed by a noun phrase introduced by the preposition 'to'.
Only authorized personnel can gain access to the secure server room.
EN: The prepositional phrase 'without any direct cash expenditure' uses 'without' to express a condition of exclusion or exemption. 'Expenditure' is a formal term for the act of spending money, energy, or time, often used in corporate, governmental, or scientific contexts instead of the more common word 'spending'.
The project was completed on schedule without any additional expenditure of public funds.
EN: The use of 'including' introduces a non-restrictive list of examples that clarify the preceding noun phrase ('specialized facilities'). This structure allows the writer to provide concrete examples without cluttering the main clause, separated by commas.
The resort offers various recreational activities, including hiking, kayaking, and horseback riding.
EN: This sentence reflects the modern paradigm of public-private partnerships (PPPs) in space exploration. Rather than directly funding contractors with cash, NASA leverages its unique, multi-billion-dollar testing infrastructure (like thermal vacuum chambers that simulate the cold vacuum of space) as an in-kind contribution. This allows commercial space firms to validate their technologies while saving taxpayer money, a cornerstone of the Artemis program's cost-efficiency strategy.
EN: The past participle phrase 'valued at...' acts as a reduced relative clause (which is valued at...) modifying the noun 'partnership'. It is set off by commas to provide non-essential, parenthetical information about the partnership's monetary value.
The painting, valued at over ten million dollars, was stolen from the museum last night.
EN: The passive construction 'is designed to + infinitive' is used to express the purpose, intention, or objective behind the creation or implementation of a system, plan, or entity.
This new software is designed to streamline the company's billing process.
EN: The non-defining relative clause introduced by 'which' ('which remains targeted for early 2028') provides extra information about 'Artemis IV'. The verb 'remains' is followed by a past participle 'targeted' acting as an adjective, indicating a continuing state of planning.
The project, which remains scheduled for next spring, has received additional funding.
EN: The 'Artemis' program is a NASA-led endeavor to land humans, including the first woman and first person of color, back on the Moon. 'Artemis IV' specifically represents a key milestone aimed at establishing a long-term, sustainable presence on the lunar surface, heavily relying on public-private partnerships to share the immense financial and technological risks.
EN: The verb 'underscore' is a transitive verb meaning 'to emphasize' or 'to draw attention to'. It is commonly used in formal, academic, or journalistic contexts to highlight a key fact or reality.
The recent report underscores the urgent need for global climate action.
EN: The word 'sheer' is used as an adjective before a noun to emphasize the size, degree, or amount of something, meaning 'complete' or 'utter'. In this context, 'sheer hostility' emphasizes the extreme degree of the harsh environment.
We were amazed by the sheer scale of the project.
EN: The present participle phrase (v-ing) 'rendering...' is used here as an adverbial clause of result, indicating an automatic or logical consequence of the main clause's action. 'Render' in this context means 'to cause someone or something to be in a particular state' and is followed by an object and an object complement (adjective).
The heavy snow blocked the main runway, rendering the airport temporarily unusable.
EN: The compound adjective 'two-week-long' is formed by combining a number, a singular noun, and an adjective with hyphens. When a measurement or duration functions as a pre-nominal modifier (before a noun), the noun within the compound must remain singular (e.g., 'two-week', not 'two-weeks').
The government launched a three-month-long investigation into the financial scandal.
EN: The lunar night lasts approximately 14 Earth days, followed by 14 Earth days of continuous sunlight. This extreme cycle presents one of the greatest engineering challenges for space exploration, particularly in the 'permanently shadowed regions' (PSRs) near the lunar poles, which never receive sunlight and are among the coldest places in the solar system.
EN: The non-defining relative clause introduced by ', which' is used to comment on the entire preceding clause ('Conventional wiring... has proven impractical') rather than a single noun. This is a common device in academic and formal writing to show cause, effect, or logical evaluation.
The experiment failed to produce the expected results, which is precisely why we need to recalibrate our instruments.
EN: The structure 'which is precisely why...' uses the adverb 'precisely' to add strong emphasis to the reason ('why...') that explains the situation described in the main clause.
The region experiences frequent seismic activity, which is precisely why the buildings are constructed with flexible steel frames.
EN: The present perfect tense 'has proven' (or 'has proved') is used here to describe a state or conclusion that has been established over time up to the present moment, emphasizing its current relevance.
This innovative approach has proven highly effective in reducing carbon emissions over the past decade.
EN: The sentence highlights the extreme environmental challenges of lunar exploration. The 'abrasive dust' refers to lunar regolith, which consists of tiny, sharp, glass-like particles created by micrometeorite impacts. Because there is no wind or water to erode these particles, they remain highly abrasive and cling to surfaces due to electrostatic charges, posing a severe threat to mechanical seals, spacesuits, and conventional wiring. This has driven space agencies like NASA to seek non-contact or highly shielded technologies.
EN: The phrase 'Were it not for...' is a formal, inverted conditional structure used to express what would happen if a specific situation or factor did not exist. It is equivalent to 'If it were not for...' and is used for hypothetical situations in the present or future (Second Conditional).
Were it not for your timely advice, we would not be able to complete the project on time.
EN: The word 'sustained' is a past participle used as an adjective meaning 'continuing for an extended period without interruption.' It modifies the noun 'presence' to describe a long-term, continuous existence.
Sustained economic growth is essential for the development of the region.
EN: The adverb 'fundamentally' is used to modify the adjective 'unachievable,' emphasizing that the impossibility of the task goes to its very core or basic nature.
The two political parties have fundamentally different approaches to healthcare reform.
EN: The sentence highlights the extreme difficulty of space exploration, specifically the Artemis program's goal of establishing a sustainable presence on the Moon. In scientific and engineering discourse, the term 'sustained presence' represents a major paradigm shift from the temporary visits of the Apollo era to permanent, long-term habitation, which requires unprecedented technological breakthroughs.
EN: The prepositional relative clause structure 'preposition + which' is used in formal English to connect a relative pronoun to its governing preposition, placing the preposition before 'which' rather than at the end of the clause.
This is the fundamental principle upon which our entire philosophy is built.
EN: The adverb 'collectively' is used as a sentence modifier at the beginning of the sentence to indicate that the subjects are being considered as a whole group rather than individually.
EN: The transitive verb 'constitute' is used in formal contexts to mean 'to be the parts that form something' or 'to make up', serving as a more academic alternative to 'make up' or 'form'.
EN: The sentence highlights the modern aerospace industry's reliance on a 'supply chain' of private commercial partners rather than NASA building everything in-house. This reflects a major cultural and operational shift in American space exploration (the transition to public-private partnerships like the Artemis program).
EN: Locative Inversion (Prepositional Phrase Inversion): When a prepositional phrase of place or order (e.g., 'Among...') is placed at the beginning of a sentence for emphasis or cohesion, the subject and the verb 'be' are inverted. Here, 'Among the pressing technical problems...' is the fronted prepositional phrase, 'is' is the verb, and 'the challenge...' is the actual plural/singular subject.
Among the candidates interviewed yesterday was a highly qualified software engineer.
EN: Preposition + Pronoun + Gerund (without it disintegrating): The preposition 'without' is followed by a gerund phrase. When the gerund ('disintegrating') has its own subject that is different from the main subject of the clause, this subject is placed immediately before the gerund as an objective pronoun ('it') or a possessive pronoun ('its').
They managed to complete the project on time without us helping them.
EN: Noun Phrase in Apposition with a Participial Modifier: 'a procedure requiring...' is an appositive noun phrase that renaming or explaining the entire preceding concept (returning hardware safely). The noun 'procedure' is modified by the active present participle phrase 'requiring...', which functions like a reduced relative clause ('which requires...').
The team decided to redesign the engine, a decision leading to a significant increase in efficiency.
EN: Inverted conditional clause with 'should'. In formal English, 'should' can be placed at the beginning of a conditional clause to replace 'if' (e.g., 'If any critical component should fail...' becomes 'Should any critical component fail...'). This structure expresses a hypothetical or less likely future scenario and elevates the register to highly formal.
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EN: The verb 'materialize' is used here in its intransitive sense meaning 'to happen', 'to appear', or 'to become real/actual'. In technical and project management contexts, it often refers to components, plans, or expected outcomes successfully coming into existence or being delivered.
The funding promised by the investors failed to materialize, forcing the startup to halt operations.
EN: The modal verb 'could' combined with a base verb ('could face') is used to express a strong possibility or potential consequence in the future, contingent upon the condition introduced in the preceding clause.
Without proper maintenance, the bridge could face severe structural issues within a decade.
EN: The 'Artemis program' is a NASA-led human spaceflight program with the primary goal of landing the next humans on the Moon, specifically at the lunar south pole region. The mention of 'substantial delays' reflects the high-stakes, tightly coordinated nature of modern aerospace supply chains, where a delay in a single component from a private contractor can stall a multi-billion dollar international endeavor.
EN: Negative Inversion with 'Not only... but also': When 'not only' is placed at the beginning of a sentence for emphasis, it triggers subject-auxiliary inversion. The auxiliary verb (does/do/did/is/are/can/etc.) is placed before the subject, while the second clause (introduced by 'but also') maintains normal word order.
Not only did she complete the project ahead of schedule, but she also stayed within the budget.
EN: Appositive 'that' clause: The noun 'recognition' is followed by a noun clause starting with 'that' which explains the content of the recognition. Unlike relative clauses, 'that' here is a conjunction and does not play a grammatical role (like subject or object) within the clause itself.
EN: Gerund as Object of Preposition: In the phrase 'of establishing a lunar base', the verb 'establish' is in the gerund form ('establishing') because it serves as the object of the preposition 'of'. The gerund retains its transitive nature, taking 'a lunar base' as its direct object.
Key vocabulary words with IPA pronunciation, definitions, example sentences, and interactive quizzes.
Phrases with type tags, bilingual definitions, usage notes, and example sentences.
The movement of spacecraft or objects from outer space into and through the gases of a planet's atmosphere.
If it had not been for; used to say that something would have happened if a particular person or thing had not prevented it.
The sequence of processes involved in the production and distribution of a commodity.
To not happen or appear as expected or planned.