EN： The relative clause 'who have been profoundly affected by extreme weather events' uses the present perfect passive voice ('have been + past participle') to describe an ongoing state or a past action with current relevance. The adverb 'profoundly' modifies the past participle 'affected' to emphasize the depth of the impact.
中文： 關係子句「who have been profoundly affected by extreme weather events」使用了現在完成式被動語態（have been + 過去分詞），用以描述一個持續的狀態或對現在產生影響的過去行為。副詞「profoundly」（深切地）修飾過去分詞「affected」，以強調受影響的深度。
Many coastal communities that have been severely impacted by rising sea levels are seeking government assistance.
許多受到海平面上升嚴重影響的沿海社區正尋求政府協助。
EN： The present continuous verb phrase 'are now pursuing' indicates an action currently in progress. The verb 'pursue' in a legal context means to initiate or carry out a legal claim or action.
中文： 現在進行式動詞片語「are now pursuing」表示目前正在進行的動作。動詞「pursue」在法律語境中意為「提起」或「進行」法律訴訟或主張。
The environmental group is now pursuing legal action against the chemical factory.
該環保團體目前正對該化學工廠提起法律訴訟。
EN： The prepositional phrase 'before the United Nations' uses 'before' in a formal, legal sense meaning 'in the presence of' or 'to be judged by' an official body or authority.
中文： 介系詞片語「before the United Nations」中的「before」具有正式且法律上的含意，表示在官方機構或權威面前「進行審理」或「提交給...裁決」。
The landmark human rights case was argued before the Supreme Court last week.
這起具里程碑意義的人權案件上週在最高法院進行了辯論。
EN： This sentence reflects a growing global trend of 'climate litigation,' where citizens use international human rights frameworks (like the United Nations) to hold their national governments accountable for climate inaction. Australia, being a major fossil fuel exporter, is a key battleground for these pioneering legal challenges.
中文： 這句話反映了全球日益增長的「氣候訴訟」趨勢，即公民利用國際人權框架（如聯合國）來追究其國家政府對氣候變化不作為的責任。澳洲作為主要的化石燃料出口國，是這些開創性法律挑戰的重要戰場。
EN： The adverb 'thereby' is used to introduce a logical consequence or result of the action just mentioned. It is typically followed by a present participle (-ing form) acting as an adverbial modifier of result.
中文： 副詞「thereby」（從而、藉此）用於引出前述動作的邏輯結果。其後通常接現在分詞（-ing 形式），用作表示結果的狀語修飾語。
The company reduced its carbon emissions, thereby avoiding heavy government fines.
該公司減少了碳排放，從而避免了政府的鉅額罰款。
EN： The noun clause introduced by 'that' functions as the direct object of the reporting verb 'argues'. Inside this clause, the subject is 'the Australian government's persistent endorsement of fossil fuel exports' and the verb is in the present perfect tense ('has directly exacerbated').
中文： 由「that」引導的名詞子句作為述說動詞「argues」的直接受詞。在此子句中，主詞為「the Australian government's persistent endorsement of fossil fuel exports」，動詞則採用現在完成式（「has directly exacerbated」）。
The scientist argues that immediate action is required to prevent further biodiversity loss.
科學家主張，需要立即採取行動以防止生物多樣性的進一步流失。
EN： The relative clause 'they have personally endured' is an adjective clause modifying the noun 'devastation'. The relative pronoun 'which' or 'that' is omitted because it functions as the direct object of the verb 'endured' within the relative clause.
中文： 關係子句「they have personally endured」是用於修飾名詞「devastation」的形容詞子句。關係代名詞「which」或「that」被省略，因為它在關係子句中擔任動詞「endured」的直接受詞。
The challenges they have successfully overcome made them much stronger.
他們成功克服的挑戰讓他們變得更加堅強。
EN： This sentence reflects the growing global trend of 'climate litigation,' where citizens use human rights frameworks (such as those of the United Nations) to hold governments legally accountable for climate inaction. Australia, being one of the world's largest exporters of coal and liquefied natural gas (LNG), is a major focal point for these unprecedented legal challenges.
中文： 這句話反映了全球日益增長的「氣候訴訟」趨勢，即公民利用人權框架（例如聯合國的框架）來追究政府在氣候應對上無所作為的法律責任。澳洲作為全球最大的煤炭和液化天然氣（LNG）出口國之一，是這類前所未有的法律挑戰的主要焦點。
EN： Non-defining relative clauses (introduced by 'which') provide non-essential, extra information about a noun. They are separated from the rest of the sentence by commas. In formal writing, they allow the writer to insert commentary or background details without disrupting the main narrative flow.
中文： 非限定關係子句（由「which」引導）提供關於名詞的非必要、額外的補充資訊，並以逗號與句子的其餘部分隔開。在正式寫作中，這使作者能夠在不中斷主線敘述的情況下，插入評論或背景細節。
The report, which was published last Tuesday, highlights the urgent need for renewable energy investment.
該報告（於上週二發表）強調了對再生能源投資的迫切需求。
EN： The verb 'contend' is a high-register reporting verb used in formal, academic, or legal contexts to mean 'to assert or maintain an argument'. It is typically followed by a 'that'-clause containing the proposition being argued.
中文： 動詞「contend」是一個高階的報告動詞，用於正式、學術或法律語境中，意思是「主張或堅持某種論點」。它後面通常接「that」引導的子句，說明所主張的命題。
Defense counsel contended that the evidence was circumstantial and insufficient for a conviction.
辯護律師主張該證據是間接的，不足以定罪。
EN： The structure 'protect [someone] from [something]' is a standard transitive verb pattern where 'from' introduces the source of danger, harm, or unwanted influence. The object of 'from' is often a noun phrase representing a risk.
中文： 結構「protect [someone] from [something]」（保護某人免受某事傷害）是一個標準的及物動詞句型，其中「from」引導危險、傷害或不良影響的來源。「from」的受詞通常是代表風險的名詞片語。
The new regulations are designed to protect consumers from fraudulent financial schemes.
新法規旨在保護消費者免受欺詐性金融計劃的侵害。
EN： This sentence reflects the growing global phenomenon of 'climate litigation,' where citizens use international human rights frameworks (like the United Nations) to hold governments legally accountable for climate inaction. The term 'groundbreaking' highlights how legal scholars view this as a potential paradigm shift in environmental law.
中文： 這句話反映了全球日益增長的「氣候訴訟」現象，即公民利用國際人權框架（如聯合國）來追究政府對氣候問題不作為的法律責任。句中「groundbreaking」（開創性的）一詞突顯了法律學者如何將此視為環境法領域潛在的典範轉移。
EN： Inversion with prepositional phrases of place/direction. When a prepositional phrase (e.g., 'Among the claimants') is placed at the beginning of a sentence for emphasis or cohesion, the subject ('Brendon Donohue...') and the verb ('is') are inverted. This is common in formal and literary styles to introduce new information.
中文： 介係詞片語（表示地點或範圍）置於句首的倒裝結構。當介係詞片語（如 'Among the claimants'）為了強調或語意銜接而置於句首時，主詞（'Brendon Donohue...'）與動詞（'is'）的位置會進行倒裝。這在正式與文學文體中非常常見，用於引入新訊息。
Among the ruins was a beautifully preserved Roman mosaic.
在廢墟之中有一幅保存完好的羅馬馬賽克鑲嵌畫。
EN： Double relative clauses modifying a single noun. The noun phrase 'a thirty-three-year-old Brisbane resident' is modified by two successive relative clauses: a subject relative clause ('who is legally blind') and a possessive relative clause ('whose mobility is severely restricted...'), joined by the coordinating conjunction 'and'.
中文： 雙重關係子句修飾單一限定名詞。名詞片語 'a thirty-three-year-old Brisbane resident' 同時受到兩個連續的關係子句修飾：一個是主格關係子句（'who is legally blind'），另一個是所有格關係子句（'whose mobility is severely restricted...'），兩者由對等連接詞 'and' 連接。
She is a dedicated researcher who has published numerous papers and whose work is highly respected in the scientific community.
她是一位致力於研究的學者，發表過無數論文，且其研究成果在科學界備受推崇。
EN： The use of 'legally blind' as an adverb-adjective collocation. 'Legally' functions as a submodifier restricting the domain of the adjective 'blind', indicating that the blindness meets the official, statutory definition rather than necessarily meaning total darkness.
中文： 「副詞 + 形容詞」的搭配詞用法。'Legally'（法律上地）作為修飾語，限制了形容詞 'blind'（失明）的範疇，表示該失明狀態符合官方、法律規定的定義，而不一定代表完全處於黑暗中。
Although he can see light and shapes, he is considered legally blind.
雖然他能看見光線和形狀，但他被判定為法律上的失明。
EN： The mention of 'legally blind' and 'Peters plus syndrome' highlights the vulnerability of disabled individuals during extreme weather events. In international human rights and climate litigation, emphasizing the specific physical challenges of claimants is a strategic legal approach to demonstrate that climate change disproportionately affects vulnerable populations, thereby violating their basic human rights to life and security.
中文： 句中提到「法律上失明」與「彼得斯-普拉斯症候群」，突顯了身心障礙人士在極端天氣事件中的脆弱性。在國際人權與氣候訴訟中，強調原告具體的身體挑戰是一種關鍵的法律策略，用以證明氣候變遷對弱勢群體造成了不成比例的嚴重影響，進而侵犯了他們生存與安全的基本人權。
EN： The structure 'find oneself + past participle/adjective/prepositional phrase' is used to describe a situation where someone suddenly realizes they are in a particular state or place, often unexpectedly or without intending to be.
中文： 「find oneself + 過去分詞/形容詞/介系詞片語」結構用於描述某人突然意識到自己處於某種特定狀態或處境中，通常是出乎意料或非其本意所造成的。
After walking blindly through the fog, she found herself lost in an unfamiliar neighborhood.
在迷霧中盲目步行後，她發現自己迷失在一個陌生的社區裡。
EN： The past participle 'trapped' functions as an object complement modifying 'himself', indicating a passive state resulting from an external event (the flood).
中文： 過去分詞「trapped」在此作為受詞補語修飾「himself」，表示因外部事件（洪水）而導致的被動受困狀態。
The hikers were trapped in the canyon by the sudden rockslide.
徒步旅行者因突如其來的山崩而被困在峽谷中。
EN： The temporal adverbial clause introduced by 'When' establishes the historical and situational background for the main clause, using the simple past tense to denote completed actions in past time.
中文： 由「When」引導的時間副詞子句為主要子句奠定了歷史與情境背景，並使用簡單過去式來表示過去已完成的動作。
When the earthquake struck the city in 2011, many historical buildings collapsed.
當地震於 2011 年襲擊該城市時，許多歷史建築倒塌了。
EN： Brisbane's West End is an inner-city suburb known for its vibrant, bohemian culture and proximity to the Brisbane River. In February 2022, Queensland experienced catastrophic rainfall and flooding, which devastated low-lying areas like West End, highlighting the vulnerability of urban infrastructure to extreme weather events exacerbated by climate change.
中文： 布里斯本的西區（West End）是一個以充滿活力、波希米亞文化著稱的市中心近郊社區，鄰近布里斯本河。2022 年 2 月，昆士蘭州遭遇了毀滅性的暴雨和洪水，重創了西區等低窪地區，這也突顯出在氣候變遷加劇下，城市基礎設施面對極端天氣事件時的脆弱性。
EN： The past perfect passive ('had been dispatched') is used to describe an action that was completed before another past action or state, emphasizing the passive nature of the action (the alerts were sent by an external system).
中文： 過去完成式被動語態（had been dispatched）用於描述在過去某個時間點或動作之前已經完成的動作，並強調該動作的被動性質（警報是由外部系統發送的）。
By the time the rescue team arrived, the emergency supplies had been dispatched to the affected area.
在救援隊抵達之前，應急物資已經被發送到受災地區。
EN： The conjunction 'although' introduces a concession clause. In formal English, 'although' is not paired with 'but' in the main clause, unlike in Chinese structure where '雖然...但是...' is common.
中文： 連接詞「although」引導讓步子句。在正式英文中，「although」不能與主要子句中的「but」連用，這與中文結構中常見的「雖然……但是……」不同。
Although the storm has passed, the local authorities remain on high alert.
雖然風暴已經過去，地方當局仍保持高度警惕。
EN： The verb 'cease' followed by an infinitive ('ceased to function') is a formal way to express that an action or state has stopped. It carries a more literary or official register than 'stopped functioning'.
中文： 動詞「cease」後接不定詞（ceased to function）是表達某個動作或狀態停止的正式用法。與「stopped functioning」相比，它具有更具文學性或官方的語體色彩。
The machinery ceased to operate after the power grid failed.
電網故障後，機器便停止了運作。
EN： In modern apartment buildings, critical infrastructure such as lifts (elevators) and intercoms rely heavily on the electrical grid. During extreme weather events like the 2022 Brisbane floods, power outages can instantly isolate vulnerable residents, especially those with disabilities, highlighting a critical gap in emergency evacuation planning and infrastructure resilience.
中文： 在現代公寓大樓中，電梯和對講機等關鍵基礎設施高度依賴電網。在 2022 年布里斯本大洪水等極端天氣事件中，停電會瞬間孤立弱勢居民（特別是身障人士），這突顯了應急疏散規劃和基礎設施韌性方面的關鍵漏洞。
EN： The verb 'render' is used as a causative verb meaning 'to cause someone or something to be in a particular state'. It is typically followed by an object and an adjective (render + object + adjective), often describing a negative or helpless state.
中文： 動詞「render」用作使役動詞，意思是「使某人或某物處於某種特定狀態」。其後通常接賓語和形容詞（render + 賓語 + 形容詞），常用於描述否定或無助的狀態。
The sudden heavy snowstorm rendered the mountain roads impassable.
突然的暴風雪使山路無法通行。
EN： The reporting verb 'recall' can take multiple parallel noun clauses starting with 'that' as its direct objects. In this sentence, 'recalled that [clause 1], and that [clause 2]' structurally connects two distinct recollections under the same main verb.
中文： 報告動詞「recall」可以接多個以「that」引導的平行名詞子句作為其直接賓語。在本句中，「recalled that [子句 1], and that [子句 2]」在結構上將兩個不同的回憶連接在同一個主動詞之下。
She recalled that she had locked the front door, and that she had turned off the stove.
她回憶起她鎖了前門，並且關了瓦斯爐。
EN： The phrasal verb 'run out of' means to use up the supply of something so that none is left. It is an active construction where the subject is the person using the resource, whereas 'something runs out' uses the resource as the subject.
中文： 片語動詞「run out of」意為用盡某物的供應，使其毫無剩餘。這是一個主動結構，主詞是使用該資源的人；而「something runs out」則以該資源為主詞。
During the long trek, the hikers ran out of water much faster than expected.
在漫長的徒步旅行中，徒步旅行者耗盡水源的速度比預期的要快得多。
EN： Apposition (Appositive Noun Phrase): 'Jack Egan' is placed immediately after 'Another claimant' to identify or explain who the claimant is. In English, non-restrictive appositives (which provide extra, non-essential information) are set off by commas.
中文： 同位語（同位名詞片語）：將「傑克·伊根」緊跟在「另一位索賠人」之後，用以識別或解釋該索賠人的身份。在英文中，非限制性同位語（提供額外、非必要資訊）通常會用逗號隔開。
My biology teacher, Mr. Harrison, explained the process of photosynthesis.
我的生物老師哈里森先生解釋了光合作用的過程。
EN： Prepositional Phrases of Place (Nested Locations): When describing a location in English, the order typically goes from the specific to the general: 'in Batemans Bay' (specific town) followed by 'on the New South Wales south coast' (broader region).
中文： 表示地點的介係詞片語（巢狀位置）：在英文中描述地點時，順序通常是「由小到大」（由具體到範圍較廣）：先是「在貝特曼斯灣」（具體城鎮），接著是「在新南威爾斯南海岸」（較廣的區域）。
She lives in a small cottage in Grasmere in the Lake District.
她住在湖區格拉斯米爾的一間小木屋裡。
EN： Prepositional Phrases of Time with 'during': The preposition 'during' is used to indicate that an event took place within the duration of a specific period or event ('the devastating bushfires of New Year's Eve 2019').
中文： 使用「during」的時間介係詞片語：介係詞「during」（在……期間）用於指出某事件發生在特定時期或事件的持續時間之內（「2019年除夕夜那場具毀滅性的森林大火期間」）。
Many businesses were forced to close during the economic recession.
在經濟衰退期間，許多企業被迫關閉。
EN： The 'New Year's Eve 2019' bushfires refer to the catastrophic 'Black Summer' bushfire season (2019–2020) in Australia. It was one of the most devastating wildfire seasons in the country's history, burning millions of hectares, destroying thousands of homes, and killing dozens of people, as well as billions of animals. Batemans Bay, a popular coastal town in New South Wales, was heavily impacted, forcing residents and tourists to flee to beaches to escape the flames.
中文： 「2019年除夕夜」的森林大火指的是澳洲災難性的「黑色夏日」（Black Summer）森林大火季（2019-2020年）。這是該國歷史上最具毀滅性的野火季節之一，燒毀了數百萬公頃的土地，摧毀了數千棟房屋，造成數十人死亡以及數十億隻動物喪生。位於新南威爾斯的熱門沿海城鎮貝特曼斯灣受災嚴重，迫使居民和遊客逃往海灘以躲避烈火。
EN： The verb 'describe' is a transitive verb that is typically followed by a gerund (V-ing) or a noun phrase, rather than an infinitive. It is used to depict an action or state that someone experienced.
中文： 動詞「describe」（描述）為及物動詞，其後通常接動名詞（V-ing）或名詞片語，而非不定詞（to V），用以描繪某人所經歷的動作或狀態。
She described walking through the ancient ruins at sunrise.
她描述了自己在日出時分穿過古老遺跡的情景。
EN： The verb 'watch' can be followed by an object and a bare infinitive (for a completed action) or a present participle (V-ing, for an ongoing action). In this sentence, 'watching... as...' functions similarly to show an ongoing, dramatic process unfolding.
中文： 感官動詞「watch」（看著）後面可接受詞與原型動詞（表示完整過程）或現在分詞（V-ing，表示正在進行的動作）。在本句中，「watching... as...」用以展現一個正在發生且具戲劇性的過程。
We watched helplessly as the floodwaters rose higher and higher.
我們無助地看著洪水越漲越高。
EN： The conjunction 'as' is used here to mean 'while' or 'at the same time that', introducing a background action that happens simultaneously with the main action of watching.
中文： 連接詞「as」在此處意為「當……之時」或「與此同時」，用以引導一個與主句動作（看著）同時發生的背景事件。
The lights went out as we were about to leave the building.
正當我們準備離開大樓時，燈熄滅了。
EN： This sentence vividly depicts the trauma of the 2019-2020 Australian bushfire season, colloquially known as 'Black Summer'. The description of watching one's home burn helplessly highlights the severe psychological impact of climate-induced disasters on individuals, which is a central theme in modern climate litigation seeking human rights protections.
中文： 此句生動地描繪了 2019 至 2020 年澳洲森林大火（俗稱「黑色夏季」）所帶來的創傷。眼睜睜看著家園被毀卻無能為力的描述，突顯了氣候變遷引發的災難對個人造成的嚴重心理衝擊，這也是現代氣候訴訟中爭取人權保障的核心議題。
EN： The perfect participle ('Having abandoned...') is used to express an action that was completed before the action in the main clause ('Egan fled...'). It emphasizes the chronological sequence of events and a cause-and-effect relationship.
中文： 完成分詞（如「Having abandoned...」）用於表示在主句動作（「Egan fled...」）之前已經完成的動作。它強調了事件的時間先後順序以及因果關係。
Having finished her presentation, Sarah answered questions from the audience.
在完成了她的簡報後，莎拉回答了聽眾的提問。
EN： The prepositional phrase 'through a torrent of' uses the noun 'torrent' metaphorically to describe a large, overwhelming, and violent flow of something (in this case, burning embers), heightening the dramatic intensity of the scene.
中文： 介系詞片語「through a torrent of」隱喻地使用名詞「torrent」（洪流）來描述某種事物（在此指燃燒的餘燼）巨大、壓倒性且猛烈的流動，從而增強了場景的戲劇性張力。
The politician had to navigate through a torrent of criticism from the media.
這位政治家必須應對來自媒體如洪流般的批評。
EN： The to-infinitive 'to reach safety' functions as an adverbial of purpose, explaining why the subject performed the action of fleeing.
中文： 不定詞「to reach safety」充當目的狀語，解釋了主詞為何做出「逃跑」這一動作。
They climbed to the top of the hill to get a better view of the valley.
他們爬到山頂，以便更好地欣賞山谷的景色。
EN： This sentence vividly depicts the harrowing experience of surviving the 'Black Summer' bushfires in Australia (2019–2020). The term 'burning embers' refers to a major hazard of bushfires, where strong winds carry glowing coals kilometers ahead of the main fire front, starting new fires and trapping residents. The narrative highlights the intense personal trauma that has driven citizens to take the unprecedented step of suing their government at the UN.
中文： 這句話生動地描繪了在澳洲「黑色夏季」森林大火（2019-2020年）中倖存的悲慘經歷。 「burning embers」（燃燒的餘燼）指的是森林大火的主要危害之一，強風會將燃燒的煤炭吹到主火線前方數公里處，引發新的火災並困住居民。這段敘事突顯了強烈的個人創傷，正是這種創傷促使公民採取了前所未有的步驟，在聯合國起訴他們的政府。
EN： The past perfect tense ('had perished') is used to describe an action that was completed before another action in the past (his fearing and searching). This establishes a clear chronological order of events in past-tense narratives.
中文： 過去完成式（had perished）用於描述在過去某個時間點或動作（他的擔憂與尋找）之前就已經完成的動作。這在過去時態的敘事中建立了清晰的時間先後順序。
By the time the rescue team arrived, the fire had already consumed the entire building.
在救援隊抵達之前，大火已經吞噬了整棟建築。
EN： The preposition 'alongside' means 'together with' or 'next to'. In formal or literary contexts, it is often used to express that someone experienced the same fate or situation as others.
中文： 介係詞「alongside」意為「與……一起」或「在……旁邊」。在正式或文學語境中，它常用於表示某人與他人經歷了相同的命運或處境。
She worked alongside world-renowned scientists to develop the vaccine.
她與世界著名的科學家們一同工作以研發該疫苗。
EN： The relative clause 'who lost their lives that fire season' uses the relative pronoun 'who' to modify the antecedent noun phrase 'the thirty-three people'. This provides essential identifying information about the victims.
中文： 關係子句「who lost their lives that fire season」使用關係代名詞「who」來修飾先行詞名詞片語「the thirty-three people」（那三十三人），提供了關於受害者的關鍵識別資訊。
The volunteers who helped during the flood were praised for their bravery.
在洪水期間提供幫助的志工們因其勇敢而受到讚揚。
EN： The phrase 'that fire season' refers to the catastrophic 2019–2020 Australian bushfire season, colloquially known as 'Black Summer'. It was a period of unusually intense bushfires that devastated parts of Australia, particularly New South Wales, leading to significant loss of human life, wildlife, and property, and sparking intense global discussions on climate change.
中文： 片語「that fire season」（那場火災季節）指的是 2019 年至 2020 年澳洲爆發的毀滅性森林大火，俗稱「黑色夏日」（Black Summer）。這是一段異常劇烈的森林大火時期，重創了澳洲部分地區（特別是新南威爾斯），造成嚴重的人員傷亡、野生動物滅絕及財產損失，並引發了全球對氣候變遷的強烈討論。
EN： The use of 'couple' as a collective noun can take either a singular or plural verb depending on the variety of English. In British and Australian English, collective nouns like 'couple' often take a plural verb ('were') to emphasize the individual members of the group. In American English, a singular verb ('was') is more common.
中文： 集合名詞「couple」（夫妻、情侶）後面接單數或複數動詞，取決於英語的地域變體。在英式與澳式英語中，像「couple」這樣的集合名詞常接複數動詞（were），以強調群體中的各個成員；而在美式英語中，則較常接單數動詞（was）。
The couple are deciding on their wedding venue.
這對新人正在決定他們的婚禮場地。
EN： The passive construction 'be reunited' indicates that the subjects (the couple) were brought back together, often after a period of separation or a traumatic event. The agent of the action is not specified, focusing the attention on the state of being together again.
中文： 被動結構「be reunited」（重逢、團聚）表示主詞（這對夫婦）在經歷一段時間的分離或災難事件後重新聚集在一起。此處未標明施動者，從而將焦點放在「重新團聚」的狀態上。
After years of separation by war, the family were finally reunited.
在因戰爭分離多年後，這家人終於團聚了。
EN： The adverb 'ultimately' is used to describe an event that happens after a long time or a series of other events, emphasizing the final result or resolution of a complex situation.
中文： 副詞「ultimately」（最終、終究）用於描述在經歷了很長時間或一連串事件後發生的事情，強調複雜情況下的最終結果或結局。
Though they faced many setbacks, they ultimately achieved their goal.
儘管面臨許多挫折，他們最終還是達成了目標。
EN： Non-defining relative clauses (using 'which') provide extra, non-essential information about a noun. They are separated from the rest of the sentence by commas. If removed, the sentence remains grammatically complete and retains its core meaning.
中文： 非限定關係子句（使用 'which'）用於對先行詞提供額外的、非必要的補充說明。這類子句前後須使用逗號與主句隔開。若將其省略，主句的語意依然完整且通順。
The new policy, which was announced yesterday, aims to reduce carbon emissions.
這項於昨天公布的新政策，旨在減少碳排放。
EN： The present perfect passive voice ('has/have been' + past participle) is used to describe an action that has been completed at an unspecified time before now, emphasizing the receiver of the action rather than the doer.
中文： 現在完成式的被動語態（has/have been + 過去分詞）用於描述在過去某個未明確說明的時間點已完成的動作，其重點在於承受該動作的人或物，而非執行者本身。
The final report has been successfully submitted to the committee.
最終報告已成功提交給委員會。
EN： The sentence highlights a growing global trend of 'climate litigation,' where individuals or groups use international bodies like the United Nations to hold governments accountable for climate inaction. This represents a shift from traditional domestic legal battles to international human rights frameworks.
中文： 此句子凸顯了全球日益興起的「氣候訴訟」趨勢。個人或團體開始利用聯合國等國際組織，來追究政府對氣候變遷不作為的責任。這代表著訴訟策略從傳統的國內法律訴訟，轉向了國際人權框架。
EN： The structure 'Rather than + -ing' is used to express preference or to contrast two actions, meaning 'instead of doing something'. When placed at the beginning of a sentence, it introduces an alternative that is being rejected or avoided in favor of the action in the main clause.
中文： 「Rather than + -ing（動名詞）」結構用於表達偏好或對比兩種行為，意思是「而不是做某事」。當置於句首時，它引入了一個被拒絕或避免的替代方案，以突出主句中所採取的行動。
Rather than investing in temporary fixes, the company decided to overhaul its entire security system.
該公司決定徹底檢修其整個安全系統，而不是投資於臨時解決方案。
EN： The verb 'demand' triggers a subjunctive clause (mandative subjunctive) when followed by a 'that'-clause. In this structure, the verb in the 'that'-clause must be in its base form (bare infinitive), regardless of the subject's person or number. In passive voice, this appears as 'be + past participle' (e.g., 'be held' instead of 'is held' or 'was held').
中文： 動詞「demand」（要求）後接「that」引導的子句時，須使用虛擬語氣（命令性虛擬語氣）。在此結構中，無論主詞的人稱或單複數為何，「that」子句中的動詞都必須使用原型動詞。在被動語態中，這表現為「be + 過去分詞」（例如使用「be held」而非「is held」或「was held」）。
The committee demanded that the controversial policy be suspended immediately.
委員會要求立即暫停這項具爭議性的政策。
EN： The collocation 'hold someone accountable for something' means to consider someone responsible for a situation or action and expect them to explain it or face consequences. In the passive voice, 'someone is held accountable for something' shifts the focus to the person or entity bearing the responsibility.
中文： 搭配詞「hold someone accountable for something」意為「要求某人對某事負責」，即認為某人應對某種狀況或行為承擔責任，並期望其做出解釋或承擔後果。在被動語態中，「someone is held accountable for something」將焦點轉移到承擔責任的人或實體上。
Public officials must be held accountable for their spending decisions.
公職人員必須為其開支決策承擔責任。
EN： This sentence reflects a growing global trend in 'climate litigation,' where citizens use international human rights frameworks (like the UN) to hold governments legally responsible for climate change. Unlike traditional lawsuits, these actions often seek systemic policy reform (such as halting fossil fuel projects) rather than monetary damages, highlighting a shift from economic restitution to environmental accountability.
中文： 這句話反映了全球「氣候訴訟」日益增長的趨勢，即公民利用國際人權框架（如聯合國）來追究政府對氣候變遷的法律責任。與傳統訴訟不同，這些行動通常尋求系統性的政策改革（例如停止化石燃料項目），而非金錢賠償，這突顯了從經濟賠償向環境責任追究的轉變。
EN： The clause 'should the UN intervention prove successful' is an inverted conditional clause (first conditional / future possibility) where 'should' replaces 'if' and the subject-verb order is inverted ('should the UN intervention prove' instead of 'if the UN intervention should prove'). This structure is highly formal and common in legal, academic, and journalistic registers.
中文： 子句「should the UN intervention prove successful」是一個倒裝條件子句（第一類條件句 / 未來可能性），其中「should」取代了「if」，且主詞與動詞順序倒裝（以「should the UN intervention prove」代替「if the UN intervention should prove」）。這種結構非常正式，常見於法律、學術和新聞語體中。
Should you require further assistance, please do not hesitate to contact our legal department.
倘若您需要進一步的協助，請毫不猶豫地聯絡我們的法律部門。
EN： The verb 'prove' is used here as a copular (linking) verb meaning 'to turn out to be' or 'to be found to be'. It is directly followed by the adjective 'successful' rather than an adverb, describing the state of the subject 'the UN intervention'.
中文： 動詞「prove」在此處用作連繫動詞，意思是「結果證明是」或「被發現是」。它後面直接接形容詞「successful」而非副詞，用以修飾主詞「the UN intervention」的狀態。
The new strategy proved highly effective during the trial period.
這項新策略在試行期間被證明是非常有效的。
EN： The modal verb 'could' is used to express a tentative or conditional possibility in the future, dependent on the condition introduced by the inverted 'should' clause. It conveys a professional, cautious tone typical of legal analysis.
中文： 情態動詞「could」用於表示未來暫定或有條件的可能性，這取決於倒裝子句「should」所引入的條件。它傳達出法律分析中常見的專業且謹慎的語氣。
A successful appeal could pave the way for systemic reforms in the justice system.
上訴成功可能會為司法系統的系統性改革鋪平道路。
EN： This sentence reflects a growing global trend in 'climate litigation,' where citizens use international human rights frameworks (like those of the United Nations) to hold national governments accountable for climate inaction. This represents a shift from traditional environmental law to a human-rights-based approach to climate change.
中文： 這句話反映了全球日益增長的「氣候訴訟」趨勢，即公民利用國際人權框架（如聯合國的框架）來追究國家政府對氣候變化不作為的責任。這代表了從傳統環境法向基於人權的氣候變化應對方法的轉變。
EN： The noun clause introduced by 'whether' acts as a subject complement following the linking verb 'remains'. It is used to express uncertainty or a choice between alternatives, often translated as 'whether or not'.
中文： 由「whether」引導的名詞子句在此擔任連繫動詞「remains」的主詞補語。它用於表示不確定性或在不同選擇之間做抉擇，通常翻譯為「是否」。
The issue remains whether the local community will accept the new waste management facility.
問題依然在於當地社區是否會接受新的垃圾處理設施。
EN： The verb 'compel' is a transitive verb that typically takes the pattern 'compel someone/something to do something' or 'compel + noun phrase'. It expresses the act of forcing or driving someone to a course of action.
中文： 動詞「compel」是一個及物動詞，通常採用「compel someone/something to do something」或「compel + 名詞片語」的結構。它表示強迫或驅使某人採取某種行動。
Extreme circumstances may compel the government to take emergency measures.
極端情況可能會迫使政府採取緊急措施。
EN： The relative clause 'that ranks among the world's largest fossil fuel exporters' uses the relative pronoun 'that' to modify the noun 'nation'. The phrase 'rank among' is used to position someone or something within a specific class or category.
中文： 關係子句「that ranks among the world's largest fossil fuel exporters」使用關係代名詞「that」來修飾名詞「nation」。「rank among」這個片語用於將某人或某物歸類於特定的級別或類別中。
She ranks among the most influential scientists of her generation.
她名列她那一代最具影響力的科學家之一。
EN： This sentence highlights the ongoing global tension between economic interests (specifically fossil fuel exports) and climate action. Australia, as one of the world's largest coal and liquefied natural gas (LNG) exporters, often finds itself at the center of international climate litigation and policy debates, balancing domestic economic reliance on resources against global environmental responsibilities.
中文： 這句話凸顯了經濟利益（特別是化石燃料出口）與氣候行動之間持續存在的全球性緊張關係。澳洲作為全球最大的煤炭和液化天然氣（LNG）出口國之一，經常處於國際氣候訴訟和政策辯論的中心，在國內對資源的經濟依賴與全球環保責任之間尋求平衡。
重要單字附有 IPA 發音、定義、例句和互動式測驗。
在本文中： 史無前例的、空前的
在本文中： 支持、認可、背書
在本文中： 使惡化、加劇
在本文中： 毀滅性破壞、災難
在本文中： 可預見的
在本文中： 令人心碎的、悲慘的、折磨人的
在本文中： （尤指因意外或惡劣環境）喪生、死亡
在本文中： 訴訟、打官司
在本文中： 使持續、使永久存在
在本文中： 強迫、迫使
片語包含類型標示、雙語定義、用法說明和例句。
A natural fuel such as coal or gas, formed in the geological past from the remains of living organisms.
化石燃料
To be forced to accept responsibility for one's actions or decisions.
被追究責任、要求負責
To decide or do something that will be used as an example or rule to be followed in the future for similar cases.
確立重要先例
To use up the available supply of something.
用盡、耗盡