EN： The past participle phrase 'associated with...' is used as an adjective phrase modifying the noun 'challenges'. It is a reduced relative clause, shortened from 'which are associated with...'.
中文： 过去分词短语“associated with...”（与……相关）用作形容词短语，修饰名词“challenges”（挑战）。这是一个简化的关系从句，由“which are associated with...”缩减而来。
The costs associated with the project have exceeded our initial budget.
与该专案相关的费用已经超出了我们最初的预算。
EN： The infinitive 'to tackle' functions as an adverbial of purpose, explaining 'why' NASA selected the 37 American companies.
中文： 不定词“to tackle”（去应对/解决）在此处充当目的状语，解释了美国国家航空航天局选拔这37家美国公司的“目的”。
The government implemented new policies to combat inflation.
政府实施了新政策以打击通货膨胀。
EN： The reporting clause 'the agency announced on June 26' is placed at the end of the sentence as a parenthetical addition, which is a common journalistic style to attribute information without interrupting the flow of the main news.
中文： 报道从句“the agency announced on June 26”（该机构于6月26日宣布）被置于句末作为插入语。这是新闻写作中常见的风格，能在不中断主要新闻流畅度的情况下交代消息来源。
The new policy will take effect next month, the spokesperson confirmed on Tuesday.
发言人于周二证实，新政策将于下个月生效。
EN： The term 'the agency' is a common journalistic substitution for 'NASA' to avoid repetitive language in news writing. In the context of space exploration, 'the agency' almost universally refers to NASA in American media. Additionally, the mention of a 'permanent lunar base' refers to the broader, real-world international efforts (like the Artemis program) to transition from temporary exploration to sustainable human presence on the Moon.
中文： 「the agency」（该机构）是新闻写作中常见的代称，用来避免重复提及「NASA」（美国国家航空航天局）。在美国媒体的太空探索报道中，「the agency」几乎专指 NASA。此外，文中提到的「永久月球基地」与现实（如阿尔忒弥斯计划）将太空探索从「短期停留」转型为「在月球上长期可持续驻留」的国际努力息息相关。
EN： The phrase 'gain access to' is a highly common collocated expression in formal and professional English, meaning to obtain the right, opportunity, or physical means to enter or use something. It is followed by a noun phrase introduced by the preposition 'to'.
中文： 短语「gain access to」是正式与专业英文中非常常见的搭配词，意思是获得进入或使用某物的权利、机会或实体管道。其后接由介词「to」引导的名词短语。
Only authorized personnel can gain access to the secure server room.
只有授权人员才能进入安全服务器房。
EN： The prepositional phrase 'without any direct cash expenditure' uses 'without' to express a condition of exclusion or exemption. 'Expenditure' is a formal term for the act of spending money, energy, or time, often used in corporate, governmental, or scientific contexts instead of the more common word 'spending'.
中文： 介词短语「without any direct cash expenditure」使用「without」来表示排除或豁免的条件。「Expenditure」是花费金钱、能量或时间的正式术语，在企业、政府或科学情境中经常被用来替代较为口语的「spending」。
The project was completed on schedule without any additional expenditure of public funds.
该项目在没有任何额外公共资金支出的情况下按时完成。
EN： The use of 'including' introduces a non-restrictive list of examples that clarify the preceding noun phrase ('specialized facilities'). This structure allows the writer to provide concrete examples without cluttering the main clause, separated by commas.
中文： 使用「including」引导出一个非限制性的例子列表，用以说明前述的名词短语（「specialized facilities」）。这种结构允许作者在不使主句显得杂乱的情况下，用逗号隔开并提供具体的实例。
The resort offers various recreational activities, including hiking, kayaking, and horseback riding.
该度假村提供各式各样的消遣活动，包括健行、独木舟和骑马。
EN： This sentence reflects the modern paradigm of public-private partnerships (PPPs) in space exploration. Rather than directly funding contractors with cash, NASA leverages its unique, multi-billion-dollar testing infrastructure (like thermal vacuum chambers that simulate the cold vacuum of space) as an in-kind contribution. This allows commercial space firms to validate their technologies while saving taxpayer money, a cornerstone of the Artemis program's cost-efficiency strategy.
中文： 这句话反映了现代太空探索中「公私合作伙伴关系」（PPPs）的新典范。美国国家航空航天局（NASA）并非直接向承包商提供现金资助，而是利用其价值数十亿美元、独一无二的测试基础设施（例如模拟太空寒冷真空环境的热真空室）作为「实物贡献」。这使商业太空公司能够验证其技术，同时节省纳税人的资金，这也是阿耳忒弥斯计划成本效益策略的基石。
EN： The past participle phrase 'valued at...' acts as a reduced relative clause (which is valued at...) modifying the noun 'partnership'. It is set off by commas to provide non-essential, parenthetical information about the partnership's monetary value.
中文： 过去分词短语「valued at...」（估值为……）在此作为简化关系从句（which is valued at...），修饰名词「partnership」。前后使用逗号隔开，用以提供关于该合作关系资金价值的非限定性、补充说明信息。
The painting, valued at over ten million dollars, was stolen from the museum last night.
这幅估值超过一千万美元的画作昨晚从博物馆被盗。
EN： The passive construction 'is designed to + infinitive' is used to express the purpose, intention, or objective behind the creation or implementation of a system, plan, or entity.
中文： 被动结构「is designed to + 不定式」用于表示某个系统、计划或实体被创建或实施背后的目的、意图或宗旨。
This new software is designed to streamline the company's billing process.
这款新软件旨在简化公司的计费流程。
EN： The non-defining relative clause introduced by 'which' ('which remains targeted for early 2028') provides extra information about 'Artemis IV'. The verb 'remains' is followed by a past participle 'targeted' acting as an adjective, indicating a continuing state of planning.
中文： 由「which」引导的非限定关系从句（which remains targeted for early 2028）为「阿耳忒弥斯4号」提供了额外的补充信息。动词「remains」后接过去分词「targeted」作为形容词使用，表示持续处于被规划的状态。
The project, which remains scheduled for next spring, has received additional funding.
该项目仍计划于明年春天进行，目前已获得额外资金。
EN： The 'Artemis' program is a NASA-led endeavor to land humans, including the first woman and first person of color, back on the Moon. 'Artemis IV' specifically represents a key milestone aimed at establishing a long-term, sustainable presence on the lunar surface, heavily relying on public-private partnerships to share the immense financial and technological risks.
中文： 「阿提米丝」计划是由美国国家航空航天局（NASA）主导的太空探索计划，旨在将人类（包括首位女性和首位有色人种）重新送上月球。「阿提米丝4号」则是该计划中的关键里程碑，目标是在月球表面建立长期且可持续的人类活动基地。此计划高度依赖公私部门的合作伙伴关系，以共同分担庞大的资金与技术风险。
EN： The verb 'underscore' is a transitive verb meaning 'to emphasize' or 'to draw attention to'. It is commonly used in formal, academic, or journalistic contexts to highlight a key fact or reality.
中文： 动词「underscore」是一个及物动词，意为「强调」或「凸显」。它常用于正式、学术或新闻语境中，用以强调某个关键事实或现实情况。
The recent report underscores the urgent need for global climate action.
最近的报告突显了全球气候行动的紧迫需求。
EN： The word 'sheer' is used as an adjective before a noun to emphasize the size, degree, or amount of something, meaning 'complete' or 'utter'. In this context, 'sheer hostility' emphasizes the extreme degree of the harsh environment.
中文： 「sheer」用作名词前的形容词，用以强调某事物的尺寸、程度或数量，意为「完全的」或「极度的」。在此语境中，「sheer hostility」强调了环境恶劣程度之深。
We were amazed by the sheer scale of the project.
我们对该项目极大的规模感到惊叹。
EN： The present participle phrase (v-ing) 'rendering...' is used here as an adverbial clause of result, indicating an automatic or logical consequence of the main clause's action. 'Render' in this context means 'to cause someone or something to be in a particular state' and is followed by an object and an object complement (adjective).
中文： 现在分词短语（v-ing）「rendering...」在此用作结果状语，表示主句动作所带来的必然或逻辑上的结果。「render」在此语境中意为「使…成为某种状态」，后接宾语与宾语补语（形容词）。
The heavy snow blocked the main runway, rendering the airport temporarily unusable.
大雪阻塞了主要跑道，导致机场暂时无法使用。
EN： The compound adjective 'two-week-long' is formed by combining a number, a singular noun, and an adjective with hyphens. When a measurement or duration functions as a pre-nominal modifier (before a noun), the noun within the compound must remain singular (e.g., 'two-week', not 'two-weeks').
中文： 复合形容词「two-week-long」是由数字、单数名词和形容词通过连字号组合而成。当测量值或持续时间作为名词前修饰语（置于名词前）时，复合词中的名词必须保持单数形式（例如「two-week」，而非「two-weeks」）。
The government launched a three-month-long investigation into the financial scandal.
政府对这起金融丑闻展开了为期三个月的调查。
EN： The lunar night lasts approximately 14 Earth days, followed by 14 Earth days of continuous sunlight. This extreme cycle presents one of the greatest engineering challenges for space exploration, particularly in the 'permanently shadowed regions' (PSRs) near the lunar poles, which never receive sunlight and are among the coldest places in the solar system.
中文： 月球的夜晚大约持续14个地球日，随后是持续14个地球日的日光照射。这种极端的周期为太空探索带来了最大的工程挑战之一，特别是在月球两极附近「永久阴影区」（PSRs），这些区域从未接收到阳光，是太阳系中最寒冷的地方之一。
EN： The non-defining relative clause introduced by ', which' is used to comment on the entire preceding clause ('Conventional wiring... has proven impractical') rather than a single noun. This is a common device in academic and formal writing to show cause, effect, or logical evaluation.
中文： 由「, which」引导的非限定关系子句，用于对前面整个子句（「在...表面进行传统布线已被证明是不切实际的」）进行评论或补充说明，而非仅修饰单一限定名词。这在学术与正式写作中非常常见，用以表示因果关系或逻辑评估。
The experiment failed to produce the expected results, which is precisely why we need to recalibrate our instruments.
该实验未能产生预期结果，这正是为什么我们需要重新校准仪器的原因。
EN： The structure 'which is precisely why...' uses the adverb 'precisely' to add strong emphasis to the reason ('why...') that explains the situation described in the main clause.
中文： 「which is precisely why...」结构中，副词「precisely」（正是、确实）用来强烈强调后面引导的「why...」原因子句，藉此解释主句中所描述的情况。
The region experiences frequent seismic activity, which is precisely why the buildings are constructed with flexible steel frames.
该地区地震活动频繁，这正是为什么这些建筑物在建造时采用弹性钢骨结构的原因。
EN： The present perfect tense 'has proven' (or 'has proved') is used here to describe a state or conclusion that has been established over time up to the present moment, emphasizing its current relevance.
中文： 现在完成式「has proven」（已被证明）在此用于描述一个随着时间的推移、直到目前为止已被确立的状态或结论，强调其对现状的关联性与影响。
This innovative approach has proven highly effective in reducing carbon emissions over the past decade.
在过去十年中，这种创新方法已被证明在减少碳排放方面非常有效。
EN： The sentence highlights the extreme environmental challenges of lunar exploration. The 'abrasive dust' refers to lunar regolith, which consists of tiny, sharp, glass-like particles created by micrometeorite impacts. Because there is no wind or water to erode these particles, they remain highly abrasive and cling to surfaces due to electrostatic charges, posing a severe threat to mechanical seals, spacesuits, and conventional wiring. This has driven space agencies like NASA to seek non-contact or highly shielded technologies.
中文： 这句话凸显了月球探测所面临的极端环境挑战。句中的「磨蚀性沙尘」（abrasive dust）指的是月球壤土（regolith），它由微陨石撞击产生的微小、锋利且像玻璃一样的颗粒组成。由于月球上没有风或水来侵蚀这些颗粒，它们保持着高度的磨蚀性，并因静电而黏附在物体表面，对机械密封、太空衣和传统电线造成严重威胁。这促使像美国国家航空航天局（NASA）这样的太空机构寻求非接触式或高度屏蔽的技术。
EN： The phrase 'Were it not for...' is a formal, inverted conditional structure used to express what would happen if a specific situation or factor did not exist. It is equivalent to 'If it were not for...' and is used for hypothetical situations in the present or future (Second Conditional).
中文： 「Were it not for...」是一种正式且倒装的条件句结构，用来表达若非某个特定情况或因素存在，将会产生何种后果。它等同于「If it were not for...」，用于表示与现在或未来事实相反的假设（第二类条件句）。
Were it not for your timely advice, we would not be able to complete the project on time.
若非你及时给予建议，我们将无法准时完成这项专案。
EN： The word 'sustained' is a past participle used as an adjective meaning 'continuing for an extended period without interruption.' It modifies the noun 'presence' to describe a long-term, continuous existence.
中文： 「sustained」在此处为过去分词作形容词使用，意思是「持续不间断的」。它修饰名词「presence」，用以描述长期且持续的存在状态。
Sustained economic growth is essential for the development of the region.
持续的经济增长对于该地区的发展至关重要。
EN： The adverb 'fundamentally' is used to modify the adjective 'unachievable,' emphasizing that the impossibility of the task goes to its very core or basic nature.
中文： 副词「fundamentally」（根本上地）用来修饰形容词「unachievable」（无法实现的），强调该任务的不可行性已深植于其本质或最基本的层面。
The two political parties have fundamentally different approaches to healthcare reform.
这两个政党在医疗改革上的方法有着根本上的不同。
EN： The sentence highlights the extreme difficulty of space exploration, specifically the Artemis program's goal of establishing a sustainable presence on the Moon. In scientific and engineering discourse, the term 'sustained presence' represents a major paradigm shift from the temporary visits of the Apollo era to permanent, long-term habitation, which requires unprecedented technological breakthroughs.
中文： 此句子凸显了太空探索的极高难度，特别是阿耳忒弥斯计划在月球上建立可持续生存基地的目标。在科学与工程论述中，「持续生存」（sustained presence）代表了从阿波罗时代的「短暂造访」向「永久长期定居」的重大范式转移，这需要前所未有的技术突破。
EN： The prepositional relative clause structure 'preposition + which' is used in formal English to connect a relative pronoun to its governing preposition, placing the preposition before 'which' rather than at the end of the clause.
中文： 「介词 + which」的关系从句结构常用于正式英文中。此结构将引导从句的介词置于关系代词 which 之前，而非置于从句的末尾，使句式更为严谨。
This is the fundamental principle upon which our entire philosophy is built.
这是我们整个哲学体系所构建于其上的基本原则。
EN： The adverb 'collectively' is used as a sentence modifier at the beginning of the sentence to indicate that the subjects are being considered as a whole group rather than individually.
中文： 副词「collectively」（共同地、合起来）在此作为全句修饰语置于句首，用以表示主语应被视为一个整体，而非个别独立的个体。
EN： The transitive verb 'constitute' is used in formal contexts to mean 'to be the parts that form something' or 'to make up', serving as a more academic alternative to 'make up' or 'form'.
中文： 及物动词「constitute」在正式语境中意为「构成」或「组成」，是比「make up」或「form」更具学术感与正式感的替代词汇。
EN： The sentence highlights the modern aerospace industry's reliance on a 'supply chain' of private commercial partners rather than NASA building everything in-house. This reflects a major cultural and operational shift in American space exploration (the transition to public-private partnerships like the Artemis program).
中文： 此句子强调了现代航天产业对私人商业合作伙伴「供应链」的依赖，而非由美国国家航空航天局（NASA）完全自主建造。这反映了美国太空探索的一大文化与营运转变（即转向如阿提米丝计划等公私协作伙伴关系）。
EN： Locative Inversion (Prepositional Phrase Inversion): When a prepositional phrase of place or order (e.g., 'Among...') is placed at the beginning of a sentence for emphasis or cohesion, the subject and the verb 'be' are inverted. Here, 'Among the pressing technical problems...' is the fronted prepositional phrase, 'is' is the verb, and 'the challenge...' is the actual plural/singular subject.
中文： 地方副词/介词短语倒装：当表示地点或顺序的介词短语（如 'Among...'）置于句首以示强调或使上下文衔接更流畅时，主语与动词（通常为 be 动词）会进行倒装。在本句中，'Among the pressing technical problems...' 是前置的介词短语，'is' 是动词，而 'the challenge...' 才是真正的主语。
Among the candidates interviewed yesterday was a highly qualified software engineer.
在昨天接受面试的候选人中，有一位非常优秀的软件工程师。
EN： Preposition + Pronoun + Gerund (without it disintegrating): The preposition 'without' is followed by a gerund phrase. When the gerund ('disintegrating') has its own subject that is different from the main subject of the clause, this subject is placed immediately before the gerund as an objective pronoun ('it') or a possessive pronoun ('its').
中文： 介词 + 代词 + 动名词（without it disintegrating）：介词 'without' 后面接动名词短语。当动名词（'disintegrating'）有其专属的主语，且该主语与子句的主语不同时，此主语会紧接在动名词之前，以受格代词（'it'）或所有格代词（'its'）的形式呈现。
They managed to complete the project on time without us helping them.
在我们没有协助他们的情况下，他们成功按时完成了该项目。
EN： Noun Phrase in Apposition with a Participial Modifier: 'a procedure requiring...' is an appositive noun phrase that renaming or explaining the entire preceding concept (returning hardware safely). The noun 'procedure' is modified by the active present participle phrase 'requiring...', which functions like a reduced relative clause ('which requires...').
中文： 同位语名词短语与分词修饰语：'a procedure requiring...' 是一个同位语名词短语，用以重新定义或解释前述的整个概念（安全返回硬件）。名词 'procedure' 受到主动现在分词短语 'requiring...' 的修饰，其功能相当于简化后的关系从句（'which requires...'）。
The team decided to redesign the engine, a decision leading to a significant increase in efficiency.
团队决定重新设计引擎，这一决定导致了效率的显著提升。
EN： Inverted conditional clause with 'should'. In formal English, 'should' can be placed at the beginning of a conditional clause to replace 'if' (e.g., 'If any critical component should fail...' becomes 'Should any critical component fail...'). This structure expresses a hypothetical or less likely future scenario and elevates the register to highly formal.
中文： 使用「should」的倒装条件句。在正式英语中，可以将「should」置于条件从句的句首以取代「if」（例如：「If any critical component should fail...」变成「Should any critical component fail...」）。此结构用以表达假设性或发生概率较低的未来情境，并使语体显得极为正式。
Should you require any further assistance, please do not hesitate to contact our support team.
如果您需要任何进一步的协助，请随时与我们的支援团队联系。
EN： The verb 'materialize' is used here in its intransitive sense meaning 'to happen', 'to appear', or 'to become real/actual'. In technical and project management contexts, it often refers to components, plans, or expected outcomes successfully coming into existence or being delivered.
中文： 动词「materialize」在此处作不及物动词使用，意思是「发生」、「出现」或「成为现实/具体化」。在技术与项目管理语境中，它通常指组件、计划或预期成果成功问世或得以交付。
The funding promised by the investors failed to materialize, forcing the startup to halt operations.
投资人承诺的资金未能到位（实现），迫使这家新创公司停止营运。
EN： The modal verb 'could' combined with a base verb ('could face') is used to express a strong possibility or potential consequence in the future, contingent upon the condition introduced in the preceding clause.
中文： 情态动词「could」结合动词原形（「could face」）用于表示未来极有可能发生的情况或潜在后果，这取决于前述子句中所引入的条件是否成立。
Without proper maintenance, the bridge could face severe structural issues within a decade.
若无妥善维护，这座桥梁在十年内可能会面临严重的结构问题。
EN： The 'Artemis program' is a NASA-led human spaceflight program with the primary goal of landing the next humans on the Moon, specifically at the lunar south pole region. The mention of 'substantial delays' reflects the high-stakes, tightly coordinated nature of modern aerospace supply chains, where a delay in a single component from a private contractor can stall a multi-billion dollar international endeavor.
中文： 「阿提米丝计划」是一项由美国国家航空暨太空总署（NASA）领导的人类太空飞行计划，首要目标是将下一批人类送上月球，特别是月球南极地区。文中提到「重大延误」，反映出航太供应链环环相扣、高风险的特质，私营承包商单一组件的延误就可能导致数十亿美元的国际合作计划停摆。
EN： Negative Inversion with 'Not only... but also': When 'not only' is placed at the beginning of a sentence for emphasis, it triggers subject-auxiliary inversion. The auxiliary verb (does/do/did/is/are/can/etc.) is placed before the subject, while the second clause (introduced by 'but also') maintains normal word order.
中文： 「Not only... but also」（不仅……而且……）的否定倒装：当「not only」置于句首以示强调时，会引起主词与助动词倒装。助动词（如 does/do/did/is/are/can 等）须置于主词之前，而由「but also」引导的第二个子句则保持正常语序。
Not only did she complete the project ahead of schedule, but she also stayed within the budget.
她不仅提前完成了专案，而且还控制在预算之内。
EN： Appositive 'that' clause: The noun 'recognition' is followed by a noun clause starting with 'that' which explains the content of the recognition. Unlike relative clauses, 'that' here is a conjunction and does not play a grammatical role (like subject or object) within the clause itself.
中文： 同位语「that」子句：名词「recognition」（体认/认同）后方接由「that」引导的名词子句，用以解释该体认的具体内容。与关系子句不同，此处的「that」是连接词，在子句内部不充当任何语法角色（如主词或受词）。
EN： Gerund as Object of Preposition: In the phrase 'of establishing a lunar base', the verb 'establish' is in the gerund form ('establishing') because it serves as the object of the preposition 'of'. The gerund retains its transitive nature, taking 'a lunar base' as its direct object.
中文： 动名词作介系词受词：在「of establishing a lunar base」片语中，动词「establish」使用动名词形式（establishing），因为它担任介系词「of」的受词。该动名词保留了其及物动词的特性，以「a lunar base」作为其直接受词。
重要单词附有 IPA 发音、定义、例句和互动式测验。
在本文中： 艰巨的、难以克服的
在本文中： 支出、花费
在本文中： 恶劣、敌意（此处指环境的严酷性）
在本文中： 暴跌、急剧下降
在本文中： 具磨蚀力的、粗糙的
在本文中： 切实可行的、可望成功的
在本文中： 组成、构成
在本文中： 解体、碎裂
在本文中： 务实的、重实效的
在本文中： 多层面的、多轨道的
片语包含类型标示、双语定义、用法说明和例句。
The movement of spacecraft or objects from outer space into and through the gases of a planet's atmosphere.
重返大气层
If it had not been for; used to say that something would have happened if a particular person or thing had not prevented it.
若非、要不是因为
The sequence of processes involved in the production and distribution of a commodity.
供应链
To not happen or appear as expected or planned.
未能实现、未能如期出现