EN： The present perfect tense ('has identified') is used here to report a recent, noteworthy event or discovery that has current relevance, which is a standard convention in scientific and journalistic writing.
中文： 現在完成式（'has identified'）在此用於報導一項最近發生、且對現今具有重要意義的重大發現或事件，這是科學與新聞寫作中的標準用法。
Astronomers have detected water vapor in the atmosphere of a distant exoplanet.
天文學家在一顆遙遠的太陽系外行星的大氣中偵測到了水蒸氣。
EN： The present participle clause ('marking...') acts as a non-defining relative clause, modifying the entire preceding clause. It is used to describe the immediate consequence or significance of the action in the main clause.
中文： 現在分詞引導的從屬子句（'marking...'）在此作為非限定修飾語，修飾前面整個主要子句。它用來描述主要子句動作所帶來的直接結果或重要意義。
The company launched its new product line, doubling its market share within three months.
該公司推出了新的產品線，在三個月內使其市場份額翻倍。
EN： The compound noun modifier 'previously unknown' consists of an adverb ('previously') modifying an adjective ('unknown'), which together modify the noun 'type'. This structure is highly efficient for packing descriptive details before a noun.
中文： 複合名詞修飾語「previously unknown」由副詞（previously）修飾形容詞（unknown）組成，兩者共同修飾名詞「type」。這種結構在名詞前堆疊描述性細節時非常高效。
EN： The term 'Red Planet' is a widely recognized astronomical and cultural nickname for Mars, derived from its reddish appearance caused by iron oxide (rust) on its surface. In scientific journalism, using such synonyms helps avoid repetitive language.
中文： 「紅色星球」（Red Planet）是國際上對火星廣為人知的文化與天文別稱，源於其表面富含氧化鐵（鐵鏽）而呈現的紅色外觀。在科學新聞報導中，使用此類同義詞能有效避免文字重複，增加文章的生動性。
EN： The non-defining relative clause (introduced by ', who') is used to add extra, non-essential information about a noun (planetary scientists) that has already been clearly identified. Unlike defining relative clauses, it must be preceded by a comma and cannot use the relative pronoun 'that'.
中文： 非限定關係子句（由「, who」引導）用於對已經明確定義的名詞（行星科學家）添加額外的、非必要的補充說明。與限定關係子句不同，非限定關係子句前必須加上逗號，且不能使用關係代名詞「that」。
The lead researcher, who has studied Mars for decades, presented the findings yesterday.
首席研究員昨天發表了這項發現，他已經研究火星數十年了。
EN： The present perfect tense ('has generated') is used to describe an action that occurred at an unspecified time in the past and has a direct relevance or impact on the present situation.
中文： 現在完成式（「has generated」）用於描述在過去不特定時間發生、且對現在狀況有直接關聯或影響的動作。
The new telescope has provided unprecedented images of deep space.
這架新望遠鏡已經提供了前所未有的深空影像。
EN： The relative clause 'that prevailed on Mars...' uses the past tense verb 'prevailed' to describe conditions that existed continuously or commonly in a specific historical period (over four billion years ago).
中文： 關係子句「that prevailed on Mars...」使用過去式動詞「prevailed」來描述在特定歷史時期（四十多億年前）持續存在或普遍盛行的環境條件。
We must adapt to the economic conditions that prevail in the market today.
我們必須適應現今市場上普遍存在的經濟條件。
EN： The prepositional phrase 'Unlike [Noun]' is used to introduce a contrast between two entities. It is followed by a noun phrase, which in this sentence is modified by a non-defining relative clause ('where...') describing the unique conditions of the first entity.
中文： 介係詞片語「Unlike [名詞]」（有別於……）用於引入兩個事物之間的對比。其後接名詞片語，在本句中該名詞片語由非限定關係子句（「where...」）修飾，用以描述第一個事物的獨特狀況。
Unlike Earth, which has a thick atmosphere, Mars has a very thin layer of gases.
有別於擁有濃厚大氣層的地球，火星的大氣層非常稀薄。
EN： The non-defining relative clause introduced by 'where' provides additional, non-essential information about the place ('Earth'). It is set off by commas and describes the ongoing geological processes occurring there.
中文： 由關係副詞「where」引導的非限定關係子句，針對地點（「地球」）提供額外的、非必要的補充資訊。該子句前後用逗號隔開，描述了該處持續發生的地質活動。
We visited the laboratory, where researchers were analyzing Martian soil samples.
我們參觀了實驗室，研究人員正在那裡分析火星的土壤樣本。
EN： The verb 'retain' is used with the object 'much of its ancient geological record' and the object complement 'intact' (an adjective). This structure ('retain + object + adjective') describes the state in which the object is kept.
中文： 動詞「retain」（保留）與受詞「much of its ancient geological record」（其大部分古老的地質記錄）以及受詞補語「intact」（形容詞，意為完整無缺的）連用。此結構（retain + 受詞 + 形容詞）用以描述受詞被保存下來的狀態。
Despite the passage of billions of years, the crater has retained its circular shape intact.
儘管經歷了數十億年的時間，該撞擊坑依然完整地保留了其圓形外觀。
EN： The use of a non-defining relative clause reduced to a past participle phrase ('widely recognized as...') to provide non-essential, parenthetical information about the subject. This structure is set off by commas and functions as an adjective phrase.
中文： 使用省略了關係代名詞與 be 動詞的非限定關係子句（簡化為過去分詞片語「widely recognized as...」），用以對主詞提供非必要、補充說明的資訊。此結構前後以逗號隔開，起形容詞片語的作用。
The painting, meticulously restored by experts, is now on display at the national museum.
這幅由專家精心修復的畫作，現在正在國家博物館展出。
EN： The phrasal verb 'serve as' is used to describe the function, role, or status of someone or something, meaning 'to act as' or 'to play the part of'. It is highly common in academic and formal writing.
中文： 片語動詞「serve as」用於描述某人或某事物的功用、角色或身份，意為「充當」、「作為」或「扮演……的角色」。這在學術和正式寫作中非常常見。
The old lighthouse serves as a historical landmark for the coastal town.
這座舊燈塔充當了這座沿海小鎮的歷史地標。
EN： The construction 'one of + plural noun' ('one of geology's most revealing minerals') is used to single out one member from a group. Note that the noun following 'one of' must be plural ('minerals'), while the verb agreeing with the subject 'one' remains singular ('serves').
中文： 結構「one of + 複數名詞」（如「one of geology's most revealing minerals」）用於從一個群體中挑選出一個成員。請注意，「one of」後面的名詞必須是複數形式（「minerals」），而與主詞「one」一致的動詞則保持單數形式（「serves」）。
She is considered one of the most influential scientists of our generation.
她被認為是我們這一代最具影響力的科學家之一。
EN： The relative pronoun 'which' can be used to introduce a non-defining relative clause that modifies the entire preceding clause rather than a single noun. In this function, it is always preceded by a comma and often translates to 'which means...' or 'which shows...'.
中文： 關係代名詞「which」可用於引導非限定關係子句，用以修飾前面整個子句，而非單一名詞。在此用法中，其前面必定有逗號，常譯為「這意味著……」或「這顯示出……」。
The temperature dropped below freezing, which caused the water pipes to burst.
氣溫降至冰點以下，這導致了水管破裂。
EN： The prepositional phrase 'in which' is used to introduce a relative clause modifying a noun of place, situation, or abstract environment (here, 'the environment'). It is equivalent to 'where' but is more formal and precise in scientific or academic writing.
中文： 介係詞片語「in which」用於引導關係子句，修飾表示地點、情境或抽象環境的名詞（此處為「the environment」）。它相當於「where」，但在學術或科學寫作中更為正式且精確。
This is the laboratory in which the groundbreaking experiments were conducted.
這就是進行那些突破性實驗的實驗室。
EN： The adverb 'exclusively' is used to restrict the action of the verb to a single specified condition or group. Positioned between the subject/auxiliary and the main verb, or before a prepositional phrase, it emphasizes strict limitation.
中文： 副詞「exclusively」（專門地、完全地）用於將動詞的動作限制在單一特定條件或群體中。置於主詞/助動詞與主要動詞之間，或置於介係詞片語之前，用以強調嚴格的限制。
This software is designed exclusively for professional graphic designers.
這款軟體是專門為專業美工設計師設計的。
EN： This sentence uses an inverted conditional structure (also known as 'had/were/should inversion') to express a hypothetical situation in the future or present. The conjunction 'if' is omitted, and the auxiliary verb 'were' is placed before the subject 'scientists'. This structure is highly formal and common in academic or journalistic registers.
中文： 本句使用了倒裝條件句結構（亦稱為「had/were/should 倒裝」）來表示對現在或未來情況的假設。此結構省略了連接詞「if」，並將助動詞「were」置於主詞「scientists」之前。這種結構非常正式，常見於學術或新聞寫作中。
Were the government to implement these policies, the economy would recover much faster.
要是政府實施這些政策，經濟將會復甦得快得多。
EN： The modal verb 'could' is used here in the apodosis (the main clause of the conditional sentence) to express hypothetical ability or possibility in a conditional context, paired with the bare infinitive 'reconstruct'.
中文： 情態動詞「could」在此處用於條件句的主句中，與不帶 to 的不定詞「reconstruct」連用，用以表達在假設情境下的能力或可能性。
If we had more funding, we could conduct a more thorough investigation.
如果我們有更多資金，我們就能進行更徹底的調查。
EN： The prepositional phrase 'of...' is used to indicate affiliation or belonging, establishing a hierarchical relationship from the individual to the larger institution (Professor -> University -> School).
中文： 介係詞片語「of...」用於表示隸屬關係或歸屬，建立起從個人到更大機構的層級關係（教授 -> 大學 -> 學院）。
Dr. Smith of the Department of Physics led the project.
物理學系的史密斯博士領導了這個專案。
EN： The phrasal verb 'contribute to' means to give something, such as money, effort, or time, to help achieve or provide something. In academic contexts, it signifies active participation in a research project or publication.
中文： 片語動詞「contribute to」意為貢獻、捐助或參與，以幫助達成或提供某事。在學術語境中，它表示積極參與研究專案或發表發表物。
Many factors contributed to the success of the scientific expedition.
許多因素促成了這次科學考察的成功。
EN： The University of Portsmouth is a public university in the city of Portsmouth, England. In British higher education, academic departments are often structured as 'Schools' (e.g., School of the Environment and Life Sciences) which represent specific interdisciplinary fields of research and teaching.
中文： 樸茨茅斯大學是位於英國樸茨茅斯的一所公立大學。在英國高等教育體系中，學術部門通常被組織為「Schools」（例如環境與生命科學學院），代表特定的跨學科研究與教學領域。
EN： The noun clause introduced by 'that' functions as the direct object of the reporting verb 'emphasized'. It allows the speaker to report a statement, belief, or fact in a formal, structured manner.
中文： 由「that」引導的名詞子句作為報導動詞「emphasized」（強調）的直接受詞。這種結構常用於正式語境中，用以陳述某個觀點、事實或聲明。
The scientist argued that the newly discovered mineral could redefine our understanding of planetary formation.
科學家主張，新發現的礦物可能會重新定義我們對行星形成的理解。
EN： The pronoun 'one' is used as an appositive to rename and elaborate on 'a unique archive'. It is followed by a restrictive relative clause ('that could shed light...') to provide essential details about the noun it refers to.
中文： 代名詞「one」在此用作同位語，用來重新指代並詳細闡述前面的「a unique archive」（獨特的檔案）。其後接限制性關係子句（that could shed light...），以提供關於該名詞的關鍵細節。
She presented a bold theory, one that challenged decades of established scientific consensus.
她提出了一個大膽的理論，一個挑戰了數十年既定科學共識的理論。
EN： The idiom 'shed light on' means to make something clearer or easier to understand by providing new information. It is highly common in academic and journalistic registers.
中文： 片語「shed light on」字面意思是「將光芒灑在……之上」，意譯為「闡明」或「有助於解釋」，指透過提供新資訊使某事更容易理解。這在學術與新聞英語中非常常見。
Further analysis of the soil samples will shed light on the history of liquid water on Mars.
對土壤樣本的進一步分析將有助於闡明火星上液態水的歷史。
EN： The modal perfect structure 'could + have + past participle' is used here to express a past possibility or to ask a speculative question about a past event. In this interrogative form, it questions the likelihood of a past scenario.
中文： 情態助動詞完成式結構「could + have + 過去分詞」在此用於表示對過去可能性的推測，或針對過去發生的事件提出假設性疑問。在此疑問句型中，它用來質疑某個過去情境的可能性。
Could the ancient civilization have possessed such advanced technology?
這個古老文明難道可能擁有過如此先進的科技嗎？
EN： The comparative modifier 'far more... than' is used to emphasize a significant difference between two things. 'Far' acts as an intensifier before the comparative adjective 'more complex'.
中文： 比較級修飾語「far more... than」（遠比……更……）用於強調兩者之間的巨大差異。「far」在此作為加強語氣副詞，修飾比較級形容詞「more complex」。
The new algorithm is far more efficient than the previous version.
這個新演算法遠比之前的版本更有效率。
EN： The past perfect tense 'had + past participle' (had previously assumed) is used to describe an action or state that occurred before another point in the past (the geological processes themselves).
中文： 過去完成式「had + 過去分詞」（had previously assumed）用於描述在過去某個時間點或動作（即地質過程本身）之前，就已經發生或存在的動作或狀態。
The results were different from what the researchers had originally predicted.
結果與研究人員最初預測的不同。
EN： The verb 'underscore' is a formal synonym for 'emphasize' or 'highlight', often used in academic and journalistic writing to draw attention to a crucial fact or finding.
中文： 動詞「underscore」是「emphasize」（強調）或「highlight」（突顯）的正式同義詞，常用於學術和新聞寫作中，以吸引讀者注意某個關鍵事實或發現。
The recent data underscores the urgent need for reform in the healthcare system.
最近的數據突顯了醫療體系改革的迫切需求。
EN： The gerund phrase 'studying Martian rocks' acts as the object of the preposition 'of'. Gerunds (-ing forms acting as nouns) can take their own direct objects (here, 'Martian rocks') while functioning as a noun phrase within the larger sentence.
中文： 動名詞片語「studying Martian rocks」作為介係詞「of」的受詞。動名詞（起名詞作用的 -ing 形式）在整個句子中發揮名詞片語功能的同時，也可以帶有自己的直接受詞（此處為「Martian rocks」）。
She is dedicated to preserving ancient historical documents.
她致力於保存古代歷史文獻。
EN： The metaphor 'as windows into...' is used to describe how a specific subject or object provides a clear view, understanding, or insight into a broader, often inaccessible topic (such as the past).
中文： 隱喻「as windows into...」（作為通往……的窗口）用於描述某個特定主題或物體如何提供對更廣泛、通常難以觸及之主題（例如過去）的清晰視角、理解或洞察。
These diaries serve as windows into the daily lives of ordinary citizens during the war.
這些日記成為了解戰爭期間普通市民日常生活的窗口。
EN： The phrasal verb 'act as' is used to describe the function or role of someone or something, especially when it is not its primary or original purpose. It is synonymous with 'serve as'.
中文： 片語動詞「act as」用於描述某人或某事所起的作用或扮演的角色，特別是當這並非其原本或主要的目的時。其同義詞為「serve as」（充當/起…作用）。
The old warehouse acts as a temporary shelter during the winter months.
這座舊倉庫在冬季月份充當臨時避難所。
EN： The present participle phrase 'preserving...' functions as an adverbial modifier (a participle clause), expressing a simultaneous action or a direct result of the main clause. It shares the same logical subject ('Each rare specimen').
中文： 現在分詞片語「preserving...」在此用作副詞性修飾語（分詞構句），表示與主句動作同時發生的行為或其直接結果。其邏輯主詞與主句相同（即「Each rare specimen」）。
The government passed a new law, protecting endangered species from hunters.
政府通過了一項新法律，保護瀕危物種免受獵人捕殺。
EN： The relative clause 'that vanished billions of years ago' uses the relative pronoun 'that' to modify the noun 'conditions'. The past tense 'vanished' indicates an action completed in the distant past.
中文： 關係子句「that vanished billions of years ago」使用關係代名詞「that」來修飾名詞「conditions」（條件/狀況）。過去式動詞「vanished」表示在遙遠過去已經完成的動作。
We are studying civilizations that flourished thousands of years ago.
我們正在研究數千年前繁榮興盛的文明。
EN： The concept of a 'time capsule' is deeply embedded in modern scientific and popular culture, referring to a historic cache of goods or information intended as a deliberate method of communication with future people. In planetary science, pristine geological samples (like those from Mars or the Moon) are metaphorically called 'time capsules' because, unlike Earth's constantly recycled crust, they remain unchanged for billions of years, preserving the history of the early solar system.
中文： 「時間膠囊」（time capsule）的概念深植於現代科學與流行文化中，原指刻意埋藏、用以與未來人類溝通的歷史物品或資訊載體。在行星科學中，未受破壞的地質樣本（如來自火星或月球的樣本）常被隱喻為「時間膠囊」，因為與地球不斷循環重塑的地殼不同，它們在數十億年間保持不變，完整保存了早期太陽系的歷史。
EN： The verb 'caution' is a reporting verb that can take a 'that'-clause as its direct object. It is used to convey a warning or a statement of caution, often in formal, academic, or scientific contexts.
中文： 動詞「caution」（警告/提醒）是一個轉述動詞，後面可接「that」引導的從句作為直接受詞。常用於正式、學術或科學語境中，用以傳達警告或謹慎的聲明。
Experts have cautioned that the economic recovery could be slower than anticipated.
專家們警告，經濟復甦的速度可能會比預期要慢。
EN： The pronoun 'much' can function as the subject of a clause, meaning 'a large amount' or 'many things'. It is treated as singular, which is why it is followed by the singular verb 'remains'.
中文： 代名詞「much」可作為子句的主詞，表示「許多事物」或「很大程度上」。它被視為單數，因此後面接單數動詞「remains」。
Although the investigation is complete, much remains to be done.
雖然調查已經結束，但仍有許多工作有待完成。
EN： The compound adjective 'garnet-bearing' is formed by combining a noun ('garnet') and a present participle ('bearing'). This structure (noun + present participle) is commonly used in scientific and technical English to describe something that contains or carries a specific substance.
中文： 複合形容詞「garnet-bearing」（含石榴石的）是由名詞（garnet）和現在分詞（bearing）組合而成。這種「名詞 + 現在分詞」的結構在科學和技術英語中非常常見，用來描述含有或攜帶某種特定物質的事物。
The researchers analyzed several gold-bearing quartz veins in the region.
研究人員分析了該地區的幾處含金石英脈。
EN： The noun phrase 'a glimpse into...' is commonly used with the adjective 'tantalizing' to describe a brief but exciting look at something. It is followed by a noun phrase or a noun clause (such as a 'how'-clause) acting as the prepositional object of 'into'.
中文： 名詞短語「a glimpse into...」（對……的一瞥）常與形容詞「tantalizing」（誘人的、吊人胃口的）搭配，用來描述對某事物短暫但令人興奮的窺探。其後接名詞短語或名詞子句（如 how 引導的子句）作為介係詞「into」的受詞。
The newly discovered diary offers a fascinating glimpse into the daily life of the ancient emperor.
這本新發現的日記讓人們得以一窺這位古代皇帝引人入勝的日常生活。
EN： The verb 'transition' is used intransitively here, paired with 'from... into...' to describe a complete change or evolution from one state or form to another. It is more formal than 'change' or 'turn'.
中文： 動詞「transition」在此作不及物動詞，與「from... into...」搭配，用來描述從一種狀態或形式完全轉變、演進為另一種。這比「change」或「turn」更為正式。
Over several decades, the small fishing village transitioned from a quiet coastal settlement into a bustling metropolis.
在幾十年間，這個小漁村從一個寧靜的沿海聚落轉變為一座繁華的大都市。
EN： The clause 'we observe today' is a defining relative clause modifying the noun phrase 'the cold, arid desert'. The relative pronoun 'which' or 'that' has been omitted because it functions as the direct object of the verb 'observe'.
中文： 子句「we observe today」是一個限定關係子句，修飾名詞短語「the cold, arid desert」。關係代名詞「which」或「that」被省略了，因為它在子句中擔任動詞「observe」的直接受詞。
The pristine forest we protect today is home to several endangered species.
我們今天所保護的這片原始森林是幾種瀕危物種的家園。
EN： In scientific writing, Mars is frequently referred to as a 'desert' or 'arid' world in contrast to its hypothetical wet, geologically active past. The transition of Mars from a warm, wet planet to a cold, dry one is one of the central mysteries of modern planetary science, driving missions like NASA's Perseverance and Curiosity rovers.
中文： 在科學寫作中，火星經常被描述為一個「荒漠」或「乾燥的」世界，這與它假設中過去溫暖潮濕、地質活動活躍的時期形成鮮明對比。火星如何從一個溫暖、有水的星球轉變為如今寒冷、乾燥的星球，是現代行星科學的核心謎題之一，這也是 NASA 的「毅力號」和「好奇號」等火星探測任務的主要驅動力。
重要單字附有 IPA 發音、定義、例句和互動式測驗。
在本文中： 持續不斷地、永久地
在本文中： 完好無損的、未受損傷的
在本文中： 結晶化（此指岩石冷凝形成結晶的過程）
在本文中： 構成、組成
在本文中： 強調、突出（其重要性）
在本文中： 標本、樣品
在本文中： 誘人的、令人心癢的（通常指看得到卻得不到，在此指提供極具吸引力但仍不完整的線索）
在本文中： 乾燥的、乾旱的
片語包含類型標示、雙語定義、用法說明和例句。
The scientific theory explaining the movement of the earth's crust.
板塊構造論、板塊運動
To help to explain something by providing new information about it.
闡明、為…提供線索
A container or object preserving historical records or objects, providing a representation of a specific era.
時空膠囊